WOMEN’S EDUCATION IN TIRUNELVELI DISTRICT 1800-1947

SYNOPSIS

     The establishment of British rule in India marked the beginning of a new era in the history of India.  It had introduced new political, economic, social and educational systems.  Of all these, the educational system opened new vistas by creating a new set of opportunities in the society. As a result a new class of intelligentsia trained in modern Western Sciences and Cultures emerged in the Indian Society.  This intelligentsia became the pioneers of all progressive democratic movements – Social, Political, Economic and Cultural.  Of all the activities carried out by this group, emancipation of Women is more significant.  On one hand, the British liberal views and Christian missionary activities and the attitudes of the bureaucrats helped in judging the position of women in relation to the European standards and values and led to the condemnation of the customs and conventions of traditional Indian society relating to women such as child marriage, Sati, Dowry, illiteracy and widowhood. Due to their effort the burning of widows and female infanticide have been put down, slavery has been abolished, in connection with all Government business and public works, Sunday has been made a day of rest, converts to Christianity have been protected, by a special enactment, in the possession of their property and rights, the re-marriage of widows has been legalized, female education has been encouraged, a comprehensive scheme of national education has been set on foot, in connection with which the Grant-in-Aid system has been introduced, and Missionary schools are no longer excluded from the benefit of Government Grants.¹   On the other hand, westernization created an awareness regarding the subordinate position of women and the need for rationalizing and eliminating the traditional customs and convertions which were oppressive to women.  This new perception of women was the result of the emergence of a new class of western educated intelligentsia.  These people were pioneers in rousing new ideas and thoughts in the political, social, religious and administrative fields.  The British, Christian missionaries as well as the Indian intelligentsia felt that “educating women” is the only means through which the emancipation of Indian women can be achieved. Hence, the women’s education movement was “Indianized” over the course of the 19^th century.  The Sati Abolition movement provided one of the reason for the advancement in favour of reforming women’s conditions, the women’s education movement was to provide another.”²   Hence, the importance of educating women was first published in Bengal by the Atmiya Sabha, founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy in 1815.  This came in to force in 1820 by starting a Girl’s School at Nazereth  in Tinnelveli district by C.M.S. missionary, which happened to be the First Formal Female Normal School of Tinneveli district³  of Madras Presidency and in South India.

DEFINITION OF WOMEN’S EDUCATION:

     Providing for all facilities and opportunities for the learning of females on par with those available for the education of males is termed as Women’s education.⁴   women belong to poverty line and middle class were not in a position to contribute directly to the economic development and progress of the country.  Therefore, the missionaries believe in the concept that if they educate a woman, they educate a family, society,  to contribute directly to the economic development  and so on. Hence, they decided to educate the poor and middle class women by following anti – Downward Filtration Theory and succeed in Tirunelveli district.

IMPORTANCE OF WOMEN’S EDUCATION :

      Since Women’s Education plays an important role in the society, and in the progress of any nation.  Without providing proper educational opportunities for all women in our country who constitute roughly about 50% of the population, it is futile to think of achieving universal literacy.

     As Swami Vivekananda pointed out that “Education of a male benefits him largely; educating a girl is equivalent to educating her entire family.”⁵  Women’s education is indispensable for a healthy family life, providing a sound basis for the cognitive development of children in the family, eradicate illiteracy in the society and effectively participate in various community development programme etc. and make them as a successful person.  That is why the revolutionary poet Mahakavi Bharathi proclaimed, that “This world can prosper only if women are all educated on par with men.”⁶  Gandhiji went one step further in his statement, that “Women should receive education on par with men; if necessary provide them specialized education”.  All India Women’s Conference on Educational Reform (1927) demanded specialized education for women to fulfil their “peculiar” role in society.⁷

     In 1904, Annie Besant pointed out that “The national movement for girls education must be on national lines; it must accept the general.  Hindu conceptions of women’s   place in the national life ….. India needs nobly trained wives and mothers, wise and tender rulers of the household, educated teachers of the young, helpful counselors of their husbands, skilled nurses of the sick rather than girl graduates”⁸ Sarojini Naidu also expressed similar views regarding Women’s education.  To her, education was a birthright and those who denied it to their women robbed themselves and the nation, and for Indian women were mothers of the nations.⁹  Kothari Education Commission also considered that “For  the full development resources, welfare of the family and the good up-keep of children, inculcating good conduct in them, women’s education is more important than education of the males.”¹⁰

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY:

     This present study, made an attempt to analyze certain salient features of the women’s education in Tirunelveli district.  It further tries to highlight the work of missionaries, indigenous societies on the one hand and the EIC and Crown on the other hand encouraged women’s education in Tirunelveli district.  The objective of the study is to find the genesis and growth of women’s education in Tirunelveli district. No attempt has been made so far to study the development of women’s education in Tirunelveli District from 1800 to 1947 or the growth and development of female education under the East India Company and Crown. This work covers more than one and a half century, which helps the scholars  to understand the history and origin of formal female educational institutions, such as  Pyal schools or Thinnai palli, Indigenous educational institutions,  Anglo-Indian schools, Female Normal Schools, Co-educational institutions,  Female Teacher’s Training Institutes, College for women,   Special Schools and Industrial Schools for women  in Tirunelveli District and its development in the 19^th and the first half of the 20^th Century.   The First Formal Female School has started by Christian Missionaries, which has still functioning and promote female education in this district. Whereas, in Ramnad a few schools started earlier than this period were closed within two or three years.¹¹ Hence, Tirunelveli district is rightly been called as a pioneer district for promoting female education in Madras Presidency.

HYPOTHESES:

      This study is the first attempt to write the origin, growth and development of female formal education in Tirunelveli District.  For the first time in the history of female education in Tirunelveli district, the Christian missionaries has been taken efforts to establish First Female Normal School, First Female Boarding School, First Female Industrial School, First Female Teacher Training School, First Female Special School, First  Female Special School Teacher’s Training Institute, First Women’s College in South India, by starting  Industrial school for women and promote International Trade for their economic independence and so on . All the efforts were initiated only by the Christian missionaries rather than by the Government.  Moreover, the Christian missionaries were instrumental in framing the educational policies in India along with the government.  As per the government records of 1885, there was no government female formal school in Tirunelveli district,¹² which is clear that Christian missionaries are the forerunners in establishing the female educational institution in Tirunelveli district of Madras Presidency.  So, this study covers the period from 1800 to 1947, when the activities of the Christian missionaries were evident.

     More over the government educational policy “Downward Filtration Theory” was not implemented successfully in this district, because the missionaries first educate the converted people, who were outcaste or lower community in social status.  Thus, the first educational development took place among the poor and the needy, not from the higher caste people in this district. 

REVIEW OF LITERATURE :

      During the early days the Roman Catholic missionaries and the Protestant  missionaries from Britain worked in the Tirunelveli district for the spread of women’s education. No particular and systematic attempts have been made so far to assess the efforts and activities of missionaries; East India Company and the Crown towards women’s education in Tirunelveli district.  Scholars like M.Sargur Doss, Educational Policy in Madras Presidency 1800-1900,(Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Madras (Madras,1961),  Lalitha  Jayaraman, History of Education in Madras Presidency 1800-1857 (Unpublished M.Phil. Dissertation, University of Madras, 1986) in their research  analyzed the British Educational System in Madras Presidency, Anlet Sobitha Bai.W., in her Dissertation titled   Contribution of Protestant Women Missionaries in Tinnevelly (1823-1924),(Unpublished M.Phil., Dessertation, M.S. University,) dealt  the contribution of women protestant missionaries in Tinnevelly between 1823 to 1924; Mary Kenneth, Magalir Kalviyil Sarah Tucker Palliyin Pangu,(Unpublished M.Phil., Dessertation, M.K. University, Madurai)dealt only about the contribution of Sarah Tucker School to promote women’s education in  this district, Maniel.J.’s project titled , Sarah Tucker Magalir Menilaippalli Oor Ooyvoo,(Unpublished M.Ed., Project, M.K.University, May,1990) analyzed the growth and development of the Sarah Tucker Higher Secondary School, Palamcottah , and its contribution to promote women’s education ; Anjaline Bama.S., in her Dissertation titled Nellai Maavattaththil Kalvi Vallarchip- paniyil Selvi. Anne Jane Askwith Ammaiyaarin Tondu(Tamil), (Unpublished M.Phil Dessertation, M.S. University, April,1995) enumerate the contributions of Selvi Anne Jane Askwith Ammaiyaar( in Tamil) towards women’s education and Special Education for the visually challenged boys and girls in this district. Thus, no one is done research on the entire district.

      The works of Sathianadhan.S., titled History of Education in the Madras Presidency, (Madras,1894), the first of its kind throws light on the continuous history of educational operations in the Madras Presidency; Syed Nurullah & Naik.J.P.’s A Students’ History of Education in India (1800-1965), 5^th Edition, (Macmillan and co. Ltd.,London, 1964) dealt detail about the development of Education in India from 1765 to 1965; Alka Saxena (ed.)’s  Socialization of Women Education (New Delhi,2002), analyzed the socialization of women’s education and its impact on socio-economic life of educated women in India; Gouri Srivastava’s, Education in India-In Historical Perspective,(New Delhi, 2001) which dealt the status of Indigenous education in the eighteenth and nineteenth century with special reference to Bengal Presidency and also covers the causes for the decline of indigenous system of education and the rise and growth of Western Education in Bengal Presidency; Benoy Bhusan Roy & Pranati Ray’s, Zenana Mission-The Role of Christian Missionaries for the Education of Women in 19^th Century Bengal (ISPCK-Delhi, 1998), talks about the position of women in England, since the British were the rulers and they were the pioneers in female education by establishing  Zenana Mission in Bengal; Seema Sharma’s History of Education, (New Delhi, 2004) dealt the development of  education through the ages, educational theories, educational committee’s reports and its impact on primary, secondary and higher education in India; Powar.K.B. & Panda.S.K.’s, Higher Education in India:In Search of Quality,(Association of Indian Universities, New Delhi, 1995) dealt with the quality of Higher Education, Participation of Women in Higher Education-issues and challenges in India; Veeraiah’s  Education in Emerging India, (Mumbai, 2000) dealt about the Education in India through the ages; Indra Sharma & Sharma.N.R., History and Problems of Indian Education, (place& Year are not available), highlights the efforts taken under the East India Company and Crown for the development of Education.  The above book reviews help us to understand development of Education under East India Company and Crown or by the British in India.

      The works of  Sherring’s, History of Protestant Mission in India (Benaras, 1874)which covers the activities of the Protestant Missionaries and their contribution to Indian Education; Paul Appasamy’s, The Centenary History of the C.M.S. in Tirunelveli (Palayamcottah,1923) dealt with the contribution of C.M.S. towards the growth and development of Education in Tirunelveli District and the work of the dedicated  Missionaries for these cause and it also throws light on how the missionaries tackle the local problems in order to spread christianity by giving education and won their hearts; Nora Brockway’s, A Larger way for women: Aspects of Christian Education for Girls in South India 1712-1948 (London, 1949) bring out the effort of Christian Missionaries towards Eclesiastical and  to women’s education in South India from 18^th Century to the first half of the 20^th Century; Kenneth Ingham’s, Reformers in India 1793-1833: An Account of the work of Christian Missionaries on Behalf of Social Reform (Cambridge, 1956) dealt with the Societal changes after the arrival of Christian Missionaries in India; A. Mathew’s, Christian Mission Education and Nationalism for Dominance to Compromise 1870-1970; and Sydney H.Moore’s, History of Missions in India have dealt with the efforts of various Missions in promoting Women’s Education in India.

     Rev. M. Rajasekaran’s,(ed.) Life History of Rev. Rhenius, (Holy Trinity Cathedral, Palayamkottai, 2010) was the authentic book written by  Rev. D.a. Christudoss which traces the life history and service of Rev. Rhenius and it also point out the status of  low caste and high caste people in the society, and  the support rendered by  the indigenous rich people for the establishment of more than 300 educational institutions and churches,  within 18 years of his service (1814-1838) in Tirunelveli district. This original book was written by Rev. D.A. Christudoss with 472 pages [old publication not available ]

     An autobiography of Rev. Paramanandam, gives a clear picture about the types of indigenous educational institution, fee structure, salary of the teachers and women’s education in Sankaranynarkoil Taluk of Tirunelveli district..

      The works of Edward Jonnathan.D’s, Miss.Anne Jane Askwith and the school for the Blind, Palamkottai (1888-1919),(Hindal press, Tirunelveli-7);  Pascoo,C.E’s., Two Hundred Years of S.P.G. (1701-1900), (Westminister,1901);  Stephen Neil’s, Bhakthi- Hindu and Christian,(Madras, 1974), & The Story of the Christian Church in India and Pakistan, Indian Edition, C.L.S., (I.S.P.C.K., 1972), Weston,Bishop’s, The Early History of the Tinnevelli Mission have dealt the efforts of missionaries to promote women’s education in Tirunelvelly District;  Sita Anantha Raman’s work on Getting Girls to School- Social Reform in the Tamil District, 1870-1930 analyzed the social reform of Tamil District between 1870 to 1930, and also examine the educational process that  transformed the colonial era, triggered by the Western presence.  This involved the   South Indians with special reference to Tirunelveli district as dynamic participants  in the beginning.  The Guide Book of the Tirunelveli District – the thirty-first Provincial educational Conference, 1940, Ambasamudram, clearly mentions about the growth of education with datas, educational institutions for boys and girls and so on; David & Sarojini Packiamuthu (eds.), A New Society (Tamil),(grow and increase publications, Tirunelveli-2) gave  a rich ideas about the Social, Cultural, Economic, Religious and Educational condition with special reference to individual personalities, which helps us to understand the position of the converts in Tirunelveli districts from 16^th century to till date; Jacob.R.S.’s Oorum Perum [Tamil] Part II & III (Jaya Publication, Palayamcottai,2004 & 2007) highlights the reason for the name of the village and its historical importance based on folk tales in Tirunelveli district during the 19^th and 20^th century and mentioned socio-economic, religious, educational condition of the people and the help rendered by the  mission missionaries. Another book written by the same author – Thiruchabai Thiruthondargal (Jaya Publications, Palayamcottai, 2005) highlights life and work of the dedicated missionaries  like Nellaikku Kalvi Thantha Rev. Rhenius, Bishop Sargent, Rev. Ringal Thobey, Rev. Amy Carmicheal Rev. Ragland, Rev. Caldwell, and their work for the cause of religion and education of  Tirunelveli district.    

SCOPE OF THE STUDY :

        In ancient India, men and women received the same type of education and enjoyed the same status.  The curriculum was religious in nature and both of them learn together in the same place.  In the medieval period, the practice of child marriage and purdah system resulted in the decline of  women’s education.  After the advent of the British in India, women’s education is promoted by the Christian missionaries in early phases and later on by the British government.  There are various studies highlighting the English education and the British policy in India.¹³  A major part of the scholarship in the history of education in India concentrated on connecting the growth of the education system with the political activities of its products, “ the English educated.”¹⁴ The provision of education represents the most sustained and far-reaching attempts of a society to create consciousness among certain sections of that society like backward castes, women etc.  Thus, educational system is of greater importance in studying any society .  To understand the regional variations in the growth of education, there is a need for regional and district level histories of education including various sections of the society. Because, the history of women’s education in India is intricately woven into the wider fabric of social and religious transformation that took place in the nineteenth and twentieth century’s. Therefore this study, which analyses the genesis, growth and development of women’s education in Tinnevelly district between 1800  to 1947, has four main thrusts.  This study uses Primary and Secondary sources from various documents to reconstruct the Primary Educational Development of formal education for girls in the Tinnevelly district.  Secondly, the Origin, growth and development of Higher Education for women in Tirunelveli district were highlighted;  thirdly, it throws light on the historical incident for the origin, growth and development of  Industrial Education, fourthly narrate the historic incident for the genesis, growth and development of Speical School Education in Tinnevelly district.  This study covers the years from 1800 to 1947 i.e. by the end of Poligar Administration and transfer of power by acquisition of Tirunelveli  district by the East India Company to the Indian  Independence.  In other words, it covers the period of East India Company’s rule to the Victorian rule in Tirunelveli district and the efforts of the Christian missionaries,  the Company, and Crown towards the development of women’s education in Tirunelveli district with the help of Primary and Secondary Sources.     The History of Women’s education in India, particularly in Tirunelveli District of Madras Presidency, from the colonial period to the Independence was analyzed and the measures were taken by both missionaries and British governments to deal with the educational backwardness of women. During the19^th century, in Tirunelveli district Christian missionaries rendered a remarkable service to promote women’s education and founder of all types of educational institutions in Madras Presidencies.  Almost all institutions survive till now and promote women’s education in this district. Thus, this work may help us to understand not only the History of Women’s Education in Tirunelveli District  [1800-1947] from  the acquisition of Tirunelveli  to Independence  but also help us to known about the genesis of Women’s Education in Madras Presidency.

     This work may be divided on the basis of types of educational institutions started by the missionaries, government  and indigenous people for promoting women’s education in this district from 1800 to 1947 as follows:

1.      Women’s Education in Pre-British Period

2.      Genesis of Primary Education for Women In Tirunelveli District From 1800To 1947

3.      Genesis of Higher Education in Tirunelveli District:

4.      Genesis of Industrial Education  and

5.      Genesis of Special Education  in Tirunelveli  District

SOURCES:

  This study is based mainly on the Archival material such as the Proceedings of Board of Revenue, Public Consultations, Tirunelveli District Records, Selections from the Educational Records, Reports of the Indian Education Commission, Annual Reports on the Public Instruction in the Madras Presidency, District  Gazetteers and Manuals, Educational  Reports of Missionaries in India , the Notes on the Schemes for the Advancement of Female Education in India since 1902, Papers Relating to Female Education (1907), the Hartog Committee Report (1929), the Report of the Primary Education Committee (1929-30), the Sargent Committee Report (1944), and the Hansa Mehta Report on the Post-war Educational Reconstruction with special reference to women’s education (1945), Quinquennial Reports on Education and Secondary Sources  such as books, articles, Journals, Daily Newspapers and others. Field data were collected by visiting theTirunelveli district and Stephen Neil Research Centre, Palayamcottai, Thembavani Thottam Roman Catholic Centre, Tirunelveli Social Service Centre for collecting information and meeting the officials to collect data.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY:

    The methodology adopted in the presentation of this study is historical, comparison and exploratory. Find the historic reason for the genesis of Female Normal School, Teacher Training Institutions, Female High Schools, First Women’s College, Vocational Training Centers,  , First Special School in Tirunelveli district of  Madras Presidency.  It is necessary to understand the genesis and growth and development of women’s education in Tirunelveli district under East India company and under the Crown, which help us to know about the past and the present development.  Almost all government educational policies are the innovative policies of missionaries introduced  to promote women’s education in Tirunelveli district, which is clear from the primary sources available in the government and non -governmental records. 

LIMITATIONS:

      Limitation of the study is availability of Protestant regards regarding women’s education in Tirunelveli district, unable to mention everything in detail due to page constrain.  In some area unavoidably deviate from the main objective of growth and development of women’s education because, some girls’ schools converted as co-educational institution, again separated as girls’ schools, in order to write the continuous growth of that institution is necessary to mention, which help us to understand the historic development of women’s education in Tirunelveli district.  Another limitation of the study is lack of source availability about the Roman Catholic contribution to the development of women’s education in this district because their achievement records were not maintained by the diocese of Palayamkottai.  Till 1973, Palayamkottai and Tirunelveli district came under the control of the Madura Mission, they started few schools on the coastal regions their main motive is to promote social service and focus on the development of weaker section of the society.  Almost all Government records, Tirunelveli written as Tinnevelly; Palayamkottai written as Palamcottah, throughout the work , the researcher used only the former spelling to avoid confusion to the readers.

CHAPTERIZATION

     The thesis is divided into six chapters.

      Introduction which gives an overview of the study, need for the study, objectives of the study, hypotheses, review of literature of contextual relevance, scope of the study, area of study,  tools for data collection and handicaps, research methodology adopted for the study, limitations of the study and chapterization.

     The first chapter traces the PHYSICAL FEATURE  of Tirunelveli district, boundaries, historical importance of this district from ancient to the acquisition of Tirunelveli district by East India Company in 1800 to Indian Independence, the geographical location and its influence on the growth and development of women’s education in Tirunelveli district between 1800 to 1947.  Prosperity of the district on one side and drought on the other side motivated the people to send their daughters to get education in mission schools.  The dry part of the district, led to the parent to send their daughters to vocational institutions started by the missionaries to make the women self reliant and economically independent with the available materials obtained from palm trees.

      The second Chapter, Women’s Education  In The Pre-British Period analyses the position of women’s education in Ancient, Medieval and at the advent of British  in Tirunelveli District,  position  of indigenous schools and its quality, the curriculum, the mode of payment to the master in Tirunelveli district.   However, women’s education lagged behind till the missionaries opened separate schools for girls in Tirunelveli district.  In order to encourage the women, the missionaries distributed cash and gifts to improve women’s education, ultimately enlightened the public and in spite of the hostile opposition from the orthodox section, they could realize the necessity of women’s education and encouraged women to receive education.

      The third  chapter Historic Development Of Primary Education For Women In Tirunelveli District From  1800 To 1947  Which has been critically analyze the steps  taken up by the missionaries, who were the pioneers of women’s education in Tirunelveli district with reference to  Portuguese missionaries  who were the Torchbearers’ of modern education in India;¹³  contribution of  Danish missionaries, Roman Catholic missionaries,  the role of  Protestant Christian missionaries, historic incident to open girl’s school in Tirunelveli district, special features of mission girl’s schools in Tirunelveli district.

      The fourth chapter, Genesis of Higher Education in Tirunelveli District From 1820 To 1947, which through light on the higher educational institutions and its contribution to women’s education, the policies adopted by the missionaries and the role of Government to promote higher education in this district.

     The fifth chapter, Genesis of Industrial Schools in Tirunelveli District, explain the necessity to start industrial schools in this district,  courses offered, and how it enhance their economic status, historic events related with this institutions also discussed.

     The sixth chapter, Genesis of Special Schools in Tirunelveli district, deals a historic narration for the development of special school education for the special children not only Tirunelveli district but also the entire Madras Presidency, and paved the way for the formation of separate board for the welfare of the differently able children at present level.

Finally discussed the suggestion and conclusion drawn based on this study.

                                                     BIBLIOGRAPHY

1.Radhakumar, The History of Doing: A illustrated Account of Movements of Women’s Rights and Feminism in India 1800-1990,(New Delhi, 1993),p.14.

2. Caldwell,R. (Rev.), Lectures on the Tinnevelly Missions, descriptive of the field, the work, and the results; with an introductory lecture on the progress of Christianity in India, Republished from the “Colonial Church Chronicle”,  Bell & Daldy, London, 1857, p.5.

3.Appasamy,Paul, The Centenary History of the C.M.S. in Tirunelveli, (Palamcottah, 1923), p.36; Brockway Nora, A Larger Way for Women:  Aspects of Christian Education for Girls in South India 1712 -1948 (London, 1949), p.50.Muller, Bicentenary of the Tirunelveli Church (1780-1980), p.9; Wyatt,J.L. (ed.) Remineiscences of Bishop Caldwell (Madras, 1894), p. 177.

4.Nagarajan.K. (Dr.), Education in the Emerging Indian society, (Chennai, 2009), p.392.

5.Vinita Kaul,  (Dr.), Women and the Wind of Change, Gyan Publishing House, New Delhi, 2000, p.83

6.Bharathiar poem refer here

7.  Vinita Kaul. (Dr.),  Women and the Wind of Change, Gyan publishing House, 2000, p.96.

8.  Annie Besant, Wake up India (Madras, 1913), p.73.

9. Sarojini Naidu, Speeches and Writings (Madras, 1904) pp. 18-20.

10.ICSSR, Status of Women in India (Synopsis of the Report of the National committee on the Status of Women), (New Delhi, 1975), p.88; Jayapalan.N., Problems of India Education, (New Delhi, 2005), p.40; Saxena Alka, Socialisation of Women Education , (New Delhi, 2002), p.73.

11. Ramnad District Gazetteer, Madras Government,TNA

12.  Indian Education Commission Report, 1883,TNA

13. Mohmood Syed, History of English Education in India (Aligarh, 1985); A.I.Mayhew, Education of India 1835-1920 (London, 1926); B.D.Basu, History of Education in India Under the East India Company (Calcutta, 1927); S.Nurullah, A History of Education In India during the British  Period (Bombay, 1947);  Syed Nurullah and J.P. Naik, History of Education in India (Bombay, 1951) and Y.B. Mathur, Women’s Education in India 1813-1966 (New Delhi, 1973).

14.B.T. McCully, English Education and the Origins of Indian Nationalism (New york, 1940);  B.B. Misra, The Indian Middle Classes: Their Growth in Modern Times (London,1961);  Anil Seal, The Emergence of Indian Nationalism: Competition and Collaboration in the later 19^th century (Cambridge, 1968) and Aparna Basu,  The Growth of Education and Political Development of India 1889-1920,(Delhi,1974) and Essays in the History of Indian Education (New Delhi, 1982).