MISSIONARIES: INNOVATIVE & EVER GREEN POLICY MAKERS

            The educational efforts of Christian Missionaries had been more successful in Tirunelveli than in any other part of India.  Because,  on the eve of 19^th Century Western Missionaries began to serve in Tirunelveli, which made a great impact on education by the introducing  innovative educational policies  not only in Tirunelveli district but also in India.  It is a matter of interest to look back upon historical landmarks of modern education in India.  The present work attempts to study the innovative educational policies of Missionaries of Tirunelveli district.  In Madras Presidency the education was first taken up successfully by the Christian Missionaries, who were the pioneers of women’s education in Tirunelveli district of Madras Presidency and innovative policy makers of India.

Till 1820, there were no formal women’s educational institutions in Tirunelveli district.  However, before the advent of the Christian missionaries, a group of educated women were found in Tirunelveli district.  It is proved from the Collector’s reports to the Ft. St.  George on 20 September,1819, that the hereditary slave system existed in Tirunelveli district.  The class of dancing girls was also in the habit of purchasing young girls, cheaply from the Thykulla or Thykeler caste or weaver caste for the purpose of educating in their profession.  The purchased slave girls were trained to adopt the same profession of their adopted mother.    However, a few upper caste girls had private home tutelage, formal education was outside the realm of experience for most Tamil girls until Christian missionaries started schools in Tamil districts. Bishop Robert Caldwell also had opinion that literacy had dawned on the Tirunelveli woman only with the advent of the missionaries.  The above statement made it clear that establishment of formal educational institution for women was the innovating policy of the Christian missionaries in this district.

INTRODUCED FORMAL GIRLS’ SCHOOL

The first girls school was started in 1820 by Rev. John Hough with 20 girls at Nazareth.   Thus, Rev. John Hough became the forerunner of establishing Girls Formal institution to impart education to female children, and thereafter,  natives requested the missionaries to establish Boarding school. However, this school was revived by Anne Commaerer (C.M.S. missionary) in the face of much opposition from men. The girls school at Nazareth (S.P.G.) was destined to become the first school for Indian girls to be recognized as a high school by the Madras Department of Public Instruction.  The girls of this school were the first batch to appear for the Government Matriculation Examination in the entire state of Madras Presidency.

 FREE EDUCATION AND MARRIAGE ASSISTANCE SCHEME

 In order to encourage women’s education in the mission schools, they introduced innovative policies and implemented in their schools.  Girl students were exempted from payment of fees and free boarding and lodging were provided.  Further, they were also given presents of money and clothes.  The present Tamil Nadu Government has announced for exempted from payment of fees, scholarship on monthly basis and supply priceless school uniform to school going children.

Besides the above provisions, a dowry  of Rs.45 was given to each girl who left to get married after completing III Form. The above innovative policies of the missionaries, now adopted by the Tamil Nadu Government to encourage women’s education, the amount is increased according to the present money value Rs. 50,000 for a girl, who completed degree and 4 gram gold for sacred tie.  Definitely this policy welcomed by all economically backward families, because of this Marriage Assistance Scheme reduce the burden of the parents to spend money for giving education to their wards and marriage expenses considerably.   Thus, the missionaries were the innovative policy makers for ever in the field of education.

INTRODUCED VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

 Beginning of the Nineteenth century, women were subjected to hardship and most of them were leading a miserable life in Tirunelveli district.  In order to relieve the unprivileged women, the women missionaries played a vital role in enhance the status of women in the society by introducing industrial education after school hours. The S.P.G. missionary was a pioneer in Industrial Education in Tirunelveli District. The mission industrial schools were founded long before the Government of Madras started such school.   The remarkable development of 1844 was taken place when the missionaries started Industrial Schools to women in Tirunelveli district. Beginning of Industrial school led to the development of International trade by women and paved way for economic independence to them. At present the Tamil Nadu Government implemented “Add on course” to provide technical knowledge like Front office management course, computer operator, data entry operators for placement after the collegiate education.   It is nothing but the course innovated and implemented by the missionaries aim of introducing technical education to women, destitute, slave girls, and orphans in those days. 

HYGIENE AND SANITATION SCHEME

            For instance, the major occupation of the women folk in those days in Tirunelveli district was making Jaggery, which was a very labourious task and the women spend the whole day on it. They lived without cleanliness, restless, hygiene, and recreation, which led them to be vexed in life.  Therefore, the women missionaries began to organize Women’s Union for the well being of the Jaggery making women. Now, the Tamil Nadu Government encourage women self help group and give skill training and exhibited their product at Chennai. The missionaries taught hygiene and cleanliness and provide clean petticoats during the school hours. The present Tamil Nadu government had distributed free uniform to  all  government school children and supply sanitary napkins to adult girls.

WIDOW’S WELFARE SCHEMES

 The Society of Propagation of Gospel records clearly stated that fifteen out of hundred women were widows.  Zenana Missionaries introduced Industrial Education, Teacher’s Training Institutes for women and providing employment opportunity for widows and illiterate women to enhance their economic status.   The Government also allotted special Quota for destitute women or widows in educational institutions and placement in Government organizations.    

WELFARE SCHEME FOR THE ORPHANS

The large numbers of orphan children were thrown under the care of the missionaries during the famine of 1878, which led to the missionaries to establishment of St. John’s Orphanage industrial education that was the only solution of enabling orphans to become economically independent position.  The Government of Tamil Nadu has announced “Thottle Kulanthai Thittam or Cradle Baby Scheme” for the welfare of neglected or orphan girl children.

 The history of technical education in Tirunelveli district traced back to 1844 when Mrs. Eliza Caldwell, started a school for girls to teach lace- making at Idayangudi.  With the help of designers, there were 36 variety of lace product knitted by the women.  This school is well known for its silk thread and zari work all over South India.   The finished products were sent to England.  These products were well reputation in the world market.  There were 80 women were employed, which enable them to earn a fixed amount to support their family by promoting international trade.  Mrs. Eliza taught knitting to the Boarders in the afternoon. She introduced sewing, fancy and needle work also taught for aged women in the industrial school.  In Tamil Nadu Government announced Add on Course a scheme to empower Arts and Science College students by providing free fashion technology and textile related courses to get employment opportunity in future. 

INTRODUCED SHIFT SYSTEM

 Tirunelveli  Missionaries regulated the working hours and reduce the  working hours for 5 to 6 hours a day, for the temporary  workers were work only once in a week to motivate the women to involve in industrial school activities. To encourage the workers, the missionaries had given rice and clothes as gift.   Moreover, the workers were allowed to take the raw material to home and work.  The wages fixed according to the quality of lace work design, length and breath. For instance, in January 1906 lace-making was introduced in the Queen Victoria School, Tuticorin by Mrs. Eliza Caldwell and it was something very novel in India in those days.She developed the school to very high standards of efficiency and usefulness introducing lace making as a profitable craft.   Whereas the Tamil Nadu Government has introduced job oriented courses tie up with “Self- help groups” and Women’s organizations to promote trade and enhance the economic status of women and develop entrepreneurship of girls after education.

SPG Art Industrial School, Nazareth was started on the 14th November 1878 for the orphans of St. John’s Orphanage with school up to the III Standard and Vocational Training in Carpentry, Tailoring and Gardening.  They taught industrial work along with general education and introduced Shift System. So that when they left the Orphanage they may earn for their livelihood.   For instance, in 1882, the National Indian Association has organized an exhibition of Needle work in Madras.  Whereas the Government of India and State government was organizing exhibitions, trade fairs with the assistance of College Bazaar and gave subsidy to the self –help group products,  handloom and handicraft articles in the main cities and encourage the traditional handicraft.  In order to save handloom and traditional craft, the departmental awareness campaign and awards given to the expertise institutions.

WOMEN’S UNION  

 At Meignanapuram, an Embroidery and Basket Industry was established by    Mrs, John Thomas, where she taught sewing also.  They sold the finished goods at Kodaikanal and England.  Further, Meignanapuram was well known for its baskets made up of  palm leaf and ribs, Addukku petti [baskets kept one over the other or small size to big size baskets], Tailoring machine cover box  in India and Abroad. Later on this work may be introduce as cottage industry with the help of Government.  The Government has appointed teachers to teach to the village women.  Initially, women hesitated to involve in this work, later on women were interested to join with this course and produce palm leaf products for sale.   These were collected and exported to Colombo and earn foreign exchange, which enhance their economic status. The entire family members involved in this cottage industry work.   The Industrial & Technological studies and practices included as many as 18 items viz. Carpentry, Masonry, Block smithy, Tailoring, Embroidery, Spinning, Weaving Dyeing, Model drawing plan Drawing, Geometry, Painting, Gown-Making or Dress Making. Lamp-wick Making, Lace making, Rattan work, Typing and Shorthand. At present the Government introduced Two Self-Employment Projects i) Manufacture of Palm leaf Products and ii) Production of Palmyrah Fibre for Girls were started with kind help of Khadi and Village Industries  Board and CASA in order to provide a means of livelihood for the innumerable poor and also educated Girls and drop-outs in the Rural Area.  The Products have great export demand. The products have earned their name for their great skill and good quality of workmanship.

INTRODUCED TECHNICAL EDUCATION FOR DIFFERENTLY ABLE

Miss. Annie Jane Asqwith, decided to rehabilitate the blinds by making them to be self reliant.  For instance she taught how to pull a Punkah and pay to Subbu, the first blind student of first blind school in South India.  At once he expressed his interested of learning.   So Annie Jane Asqwith with the help of Dr. Willium Moon of England, they invented and  introduced Moon type of Tamil Braille  in Tirunelveli Blind School to teach reading and writing to Subbu. Later Subbu brought many blind boys and girls to learn and read like him.  Aavudaiammal is the first blind girl student of Blind school.  In 1895 deaf school was started by Miss Florence Swainson, where she taught each deaf child a trade along with general education.  These two missionaries were to give confidence to the blind and deaf, to give education and to provide them vocational training, to make them to be self reliant economically and enhance their social status by self earning. Followed by the Missionaries, the Tamil Nadu Government has run a vocational training centre for the differently able and quota allotted for getting opportunities in government organizations and make them to be a self reliant.  At present the government has introduce many policies through separate Board for differently able.

              Initially, twice a week the differently able did knitting and plain sewing for a change of work.  Girls were taught basket making and mat making and all kinds of sewing.  Later they supplied some surplus for the native clergy.  She also found a ready market for the products made by the children like dress materials, embroidery works etc.  Thus they earned a good income.  Miss.  Sunday and other friends in England sold cross stitch made by the deaf and dumb students. Blind school products established a market at Kodaikanal.  The missionaries and British officials who came there for their summer holidays purchased the materials.  Besides, a large quantity of nice work products were sent to England and Canada for sale, which cause for the introduction of International Braille to facilitate the blind women to carried on international trade conduct independently. The basket, rope, net, mats, rugs, bed-sheets and carpets  and other allied handicrafts made by these blind students had a good market due to their durability. Whereas the Tamil Nadu Government  introduced Personality enrichment courses  like communication skill or spoken English to develop soft skill to get job opportunity through rehabilitation centres or NIVH  (National Institute for Visually Handicapped).   After the completion of VIII standard, Vocational training was given for five years and proficiency certificates were issued by the Joint Director of Industries and Commerce, Madras by the Palayamkottai Blind and Deaf schools.

INTRODUCED SELF SUPPORTING INSTITUTIONS

           The Roman Catholic Industrial School at Palamcottah  had   commercial section alone. St. Joseph’s Institute for Home Industries was founded and managed entirely by the efforts of Mr. Roche Victoria, M.L.A., a Roman Catholic leader and Municipal Chairman at Tuticorin.  The unique feature of the school was self-supporting scheme, with numerous courses than in any other government-aided or Mission-managed institutions of the type.  The courses include manufacture of paraffin candles, painting, brass-band, photography, clay-modeling, fret-work, sculpture, silver, gold and nickel plating, besides carpentry, tailoring, weaving, printing, book-binding and mat-making.  Further, the School Staff were in charge of a Rural Reconstruction Centre, about eight miles away from the town, where excellent beginnings had been made in poultry-farming, bee-culture and animal husbandry..  The products made at the School were sold at Exhibitions or to different Catholic schools for prize-giving.  Pillow lace made in Tuticorin was in great demand in Europe, the industry had been replaced by embroidery and drawn thread work . In the Holy Gross convent at Tuticorin, the girl students were taught dress-making and needle work.  At present many Educational institutions are mostly recognized based on self – supporting institutions or self-financing educational institutions.  Hence, the missionaries of Tirunelveli district were the innovative policy makers of Education not only in Tirunelveli district of Madras Presidency but also in India.

    

CONCLUSION

   The researcher conclude that after the introduction of innovative policies in the field of education in Tirunelveli district of Madras Presidency, tremendous changes took place in socio-economic, education, culture.  Some of the innovative policies were dowry after completion of VIII standard, free food, accommodation, free dress for school hours, free dress for festival occasions, everyday incentive, Innovative Institutions like formal girls school, boarding school,  industrial school, co-education school, teachers training schools, women’s college, special schools open to educate women, self supporting schemes, and earn for their livelihood.   Economic independence led to the development of women’s education, employment, liberation from the age old traditional social bondages.  Widows were given employment opportunities and their remarriage was on the rise. It helped them to become more independent. The growth of domestic industries especially lace, there was enormous growth in the number of working women.  They earned a decent living through jobs and achieved economic independence.    Missionaries helped slave girls to earn money by lace work and embroidery. As a result, the social status of women increased.  Their life became more decent, clean, healthy and enjoyable.    Today Tirunelveli is  still remembered the name of the women missionaries who worked for the Young Indian women. Many a women and children became literates.  The institutions founded by the missionaries still expanded and survived and offered a wide variety of education irrespective of caste and creed.  Thousands of civil servants, entrepreneurs’ and educationalists began to come and testimony to the selfless service, and achievements of the women missionaries. The humble beginning of innovative policies in the field of education led to the development of women not only in the field of education, which help them to spread their wings in enormous field.  The above references clearly stated that the present Government has adopted the innovative policies of the missionaries with slight modification with change according to the need of an hour.

TIRUNELVELI DISTRICT: LAND AND PEOPLE

The  geographical location and ecological factors play a  significant role in shaping the society as a whole.  This had a great influence on women’s  education in Tirunelveli  district.  Tirunelveli district was one of the twenty one districts of the Madras Presidency in the early 19^th century, where education was most advanced.

TIRUNEVELI – MEANING

Tiuneveli is the Southernmost District in the Madras Presidency.  It is properly named as “Tirunelveli” purporting to mean the land surrounded by beautiful paddy fields.   The Tirunelveli Sthalapurana prescribes a tradition for the origin of the Tirunelveli. One Vedasarma, a staunch devotee of Lord Siva, on his pilgrimage from the North to the South. Lord was invited by the Siva, in his dream, to His abode on the banks of the sacred river

 Tamiraparani.  In deference, the delighted devotee came to the place, bathed at ‘Sindupoondhurai’ and worshipped the Lord. He stayed there with his family and did his daily prayer by offering the rice cooked out of the freshly harvested paddy; once, there was famine which forced the devotee to collect paddy by way of begging and carried on his routine prayer.  One day he spread out the paddy to dry under the Sun before the Lord, and went for his ablutions in Tamiraparani.  He prayed to the Lord for rain which he thought could be a remedy for the famine.  His prayer was answered and when he was bathing, a thunder storm broke-out and it rained heavily. Vedasarma rushed to the place where he had spread the paddy.  He witnessed a wonderous miracle.  Despite rain around the area, the paddy that he spread did not get even a single drop of rain and the paddy did not get soaked.  The area spreading the paddy was well under the bright sunlight.  Since that day, according to the Purana, the town was called Tirunelveli (Thiru + Nel+ Velli) as the Lord of the town hedged by the paddy for Tirunelveli  means “Sacred hedged paddy’.  Though, as said in the Purana, the paddy was hedged by rain, in course of time, it was called as ‘Sacred Paddy Hedge’.   Venuvanam was the earlier name of Tirunelveli. Other names of Tirunelveli, according to the Sthalapurana are Thirumoorthipuram, Ibapuri, Tharanisaram and Sakalasithi.  Other shortened names to refer Tirunelveli are Nellai, Nellaiyampathy and Nellaiyambalam.

PHYSICAL FEATURES

     Tirunelveli district occupies the extreme southern and eastern part of the Indian peninsula. It lies between 8½  9’ and 9 ½  56’ north latitude (122miles)and between 77 ½  16’ and 78 ½  27’ east longitude (74 miles).  Tirunelveli district is a large plain which covers 5,381 square miles.  The greater portion of Tirunelveli district bounds it on the north and north-east;  on the south-east and south the Gulf of  Manaar;  and on the west the Southern Ghats form  natural boundaries.   The Ghats divided it from the native state of Travancore.

      The coast-line extends from Vembaur to almost Kanyakumari (the most southern point of India) 95 miles. The coast has always been open to the extensive trade across the Indian ocean and most importantly with the nearby island of Sri Lanka.

 BOUNDARIES

      North by Ramnad district; South and East by Gulf of Mannar; West by Western Ghats and Travancore territory, which include the cities of Srivilliputur, Virudhunagar, Sattur and

Sivakasi (till the formation of separation of  Ramnad district from Tirunelveli district in1910).  The Western Ghats lies between Travancore and Tiruneveli.

 POPULATION

      According to the census in 1921, the whole population of the district was 19,07,314. As per the census of 1931 the total population of this district was 20,46,204. The number of female was 10,58,592, whereas the number of males was 9,87,612.  Since this study refers women’s education of Tiruneveli district, it is essential to refer about  its population ratio on the basis of sex. It is clear that the females number exceed the number of males in these areas must be one of the reason for the establishment of formal schools for women it is this reason which is responsible for the mission activities  in this district by the Christian missionaries.

OCCUPATION

       Agriculture, is the main industry of the district.  It forms almost the sole occupation of the masses and is  a source of food supply.  On the South-East coast between the Tiruchendur taluks and Nanguneri  area covered with Teris, which is suitable to the growth

of palmyrahs .  Many people depended only upon the palmyrah trees for their livelihood.

The total number of palmyrahs in the district is about 881/2 lakhs. Palmyra  is a notable factor in the economic condition of Tiruneveli district.  Every part of the tree is turned to account in some way or the other. This trees, coupled with the protection for sugar industry granted by the Government is sure to afford great scope for the development of sugar industry. The black soil of the district which is best suited for the growth of the cotton plant also plays an important role in growing cotton. The Tiruneveli cotton goes by the name of “Tinnies” in the commercial market.  Tinnies in the Liverpool market is usually valued second or sometimes highest of the Indian cotton. The chief commercial centre which exports cotton to foreign countries is Tuticorin, which is known as  the principal Emporium of South India. However, Agriculturists are suffering enormously by the fall in the prices of agricultural produce.  The return which the ryots get for their produce is becoming smaller and smaller.  The natural calamities also economically hit bad; and this gave the missionaries an opportunity to proselytize the natives and supporting them economically.  It also led to imparting of education by establishing formal girls schools   in this district.

CLIMATE AND RAINFALL

   The principal characteristics of the climate of Tirunelveli are light rainfall and an equable temperature.  In the hot months, from March to June, mercury rarely rises above 95 ½ F in the shade; in the coolest months of December and January, it seldom falls below771/2

 The mean temperature of Tirunelveli town is 85 ½ F , which, incidentally, is the highest in the presidency.  From June onwards, with the onset of the south-west monsoon the heat in the tract lying at the foot of the Ghats is sensibly diminished by the cool winds and slight moderate showers which find their way through the various gaps and passes in that range, and the same condition prevails until the end of the monsoon.  The district also receives considerable rainfall in the north-west monsoon between November and early January.  

      The rainfall is the greatest near the hills and the lowest on the eastern side of the district.  In Tenkasi and Ambasamudrum Taluks the maximum rainfall is nearly 60 inches, while the minimum is about 20 inches.  In other parts of the district the fall varies from between 40 and 50 inches as a maximum to between 10 and 15 inches as a minimum.  The average annual amount received in the district as a whole is about 25 inches, which is one of the lowest figures in the Madras Presidency.  But though its rainfall is scanty, Tirunelveli gets the benefit of the two monsoons, in as much as both cause freshes in the Tambraparni, which passes through the district.  These indeed, occasionally rise very high and do considerable damage.

 RIVERS AND STREAMS

     The  rivers  of the Tirunelveli  district, have their sources in the Ghats and run eastwards to the sea.  The Tambraparni, the most important of them, rises on the southern slope of the Agastyamalai peak and after a south easterly course of 70 miles, empties itself into the Gulf of Manaar.  The Chittar, a much smaller stream, drains the mountains on the western border of the Tenkasi Talak and joins the Tambraparni a few miles north-east of Tirunelveli town.  The Vaippaur, which rises in the Sankarankoil hills, though a stream of considerable size, does not contribute much to the prosperity  of the district, as its supply is too sudden and occasional towards irrigation purpose.

AGRICULTURE

      The district contains two types of soils i.e. red sandy soil in the southern part and the black cotton soil in the northern part.   The paddy in the wet Taluks, cumboo or spiked millet, cotton, tobacco, gingelly and other oil seeds, chillies in the dry Taluks are cultivated.  The cultivation of palmyra palm, gathering and processing of its products, especially toddy, form one of the most important economic activities in the district, thousands of the people are entirely dependent on these trees for their livelihood. Tirunelveli district is divided into nine Taluks for administrative and revenue collection convenience. Here, it is important to know about the land revenue systems followed in this district to understand the economic reason influence the growth of women’s education.

            During pre –British period the Nayak Rajahs had levied one-sixth of the gross produce as Land Revenue.  Assesssments were lighter with those of Mussalmans.  The Hindu Government was subverted by the Mussalmans between 1736 and 1739.  From 1739 to 1801, when the East India Company finally assumed control over the country including Tiruneveli, a succession of managers were deputed to administer the Revenue of Tiruneveli.  Of these 15 were Mussalmans, 9 were Hindus, 2 were officers of the Company.  From 1739 to 1770, assessments were paid in kind. There were also additional cesses collected in money.  In 1770, division of crops between the cultivator and the Government was introduced.  The Government took 60 per cent after first deducting some cultivation expenses of the gross outturn.  This share was reduced to 50 per cent in 1780 and continued at that rate till 1800.

LAND REVENUE OF WET LAND

 From 1800 to 1822, different systems were in force in the wet villages viz. division of crops, three years village lease system, and Decennial lease system.  Between 1822-1859, the Olungu system was in force in respect of wet villages. The Olungu system consisted in the payment to Government of an estimated share of the produce, the value of which was commuted at a standard price modified by the current prices of the day.  The Mothafysal system was adopted between 1859 and 1867.  The Mothafysal system was modification of the Olungu method, the variation in the conversion rate according to current prices being abandoned and a standard price adopted once for all, as a permanent conversion rate.

LAND REVENUE ON DRY LAND

            The Land Revenue history of dry villages was different.  In 1802, Mr. Lushington fixed the rates on the dry on punja land on an average collection of former years as his standard.  For some years the assessment underwent alteration, reduction and enhancement.  In 1808, they were permanently reduced to rates which varied according to the soil from Rs. 2-5-0 to 10 annas per acre and they remained the same with a few unimportant alterations till 1865.

RYOTWARI RE-SETTLEMENT AND CURRENCY OF SETTLEMENT

 After 1865, the Government had decided to resettle the land revenue on the ryotwari principle.  By the ryotwari system each cultivator holds a patta and directly pays the revenue to Government.   This Ryotwari re-settlement was begun in 1865 and completed in 1878 and was ordered to continue for 30 years.  The re-settlement was preceded by a complete survey of all the lands in the district which lasted up to 1872.

Second Resettlement and Re-survey

Before the second re-settlement operations had begun, there was a complete resurvey of the fields in the year 1908 and 1909.  The triangulation and offset system of survey was adopted during this re-survey. The maintenance work is in charge of a survey-trained Inspecting Tahsildar for the district.The last Re-settlement introduction reports for the district were made as under:

1910 –Tirunevelly Taluq, Tenkasi Taluq, Ambasamudram Taluq and Srivaikuntam Taluq[including Tiruchendur]

1911- Nanguneri Taluq

1912– Koilpati and Sankaranainarkoil Taluqs.

ABOLITION OF DOUBLE PATTA SYSTEM

A noteworthy feature of this re-settlement was that the existence of the double patta system for land and palmyrah trees to different individuals in the same plot of land was done away with by arranging an informal negotiation and settlement between the land and tree pattadars concerned.  By this arrangement either the land owner purchased the trees on the land from the owner of the trees thereon or the tree owner purchased the land from its owner.  At the time of the settlement of 1877, palmyrahs were classed as under.  ^.

 a. Paruvam charged at one anna each.

b.  Kattu and

c.  Kai at six pies each and

d.  Olaivettu charged at three pies each

     While during the Resettlement of 1912, there were only two classifications of palmyrahs viz. Rough and Smooth which have been assessed at rates at two pies and four pies a tree respectively.  The permanent tree assessment was merged with land revenue under the principle of composition of tree tax with land assessment.  There are still some cases of ‘Other item pattahs’ for palmyrahs on the lands acquired for public purposes by the Government or on behalf of the Local Bodies.

SWAMI BHOGAM LANDS

     In certain villages of the district, there is a peculiar class of lands known as Company Pannai Swami Bhogam lands.  They are popularly known in Tamil as ‘ Kumbini Pannai Nilam’.  These are apparently the Home Farm Lands of the Panchalankurichi etc.  Polygars seized by the East India Company afterwards.  His Majesty’s Government were the pattadars of these lands during the old settlement.  Subsequently they were made over to the respective cultivators who were, in addition to the land revenue, asked to pay one anna and four and a half pies swami bhogam on an acre subject also to cesses.  These lands still exist in the taluqs of Koilpatti, Srivaikuntam and some other taluqs.  These special assessments were directly brought to village account No. 7 and then to village account No.9.

POROMBOKE

     Poramboke lands are those reserved for State or communal purposes.  Irrespective of the class to which they are registered in the village accounts, porombokes of all description are at the disposal of Government.  The only difference in respect of Temple Porambokes is that the Government cannot interfere with temple sites actually enjoyed as such.  Temple porombokes in all other respects stand in the same category as other kinds of porombokes.

NATHAM POROMBOKE

     Natham has two main cases namely Private attached and detached natham and Grama natham [Village natham].  Private nathams are divided into Natham backyards within privilege limits and Natham backyards outside privilege limits.  About 1892-93, a natham register showing private nathams was prepared and kept up in the Taluq offices.  This was only used for reference in settling disputes.  As natham register is unauthorized, it has since been destroyed.

INAMS

      Inams are entirely or partially tax free lands.  Most of the Inams had their origin prior to the 17^th century, and some during the 17^th century of the Muhammadan supremacy over India.  During the 18^th century, when the ryotwari revenues had successive developments, the tenures of Inams were little interfered with.  Prior to 1869, Inam title deeds were not in the name of the Secretary of State for India in Council as required by the original Statute.  But this defect was rectified by a subsequent statute in which all titile deeds were held valid.  There are whole inams and minor inams.  These Inams are either Devadayam or Dharmadayam imams (Charitable or Religious).  The other items are Jeevanartham (Subsistence) Artisan Inams and Dasabandum Inams. Dasabandams are imams granted as compensation for construction of irrigation works with the stipulation that they should be kept up.  Moturpha Inam is another kind.  Jenki Inam is granted to Military services rendered.  There are also unenfranchised and enfranchised Inams.  Enfranchised imams are in the same level as ryotwari patta lands.  There is another item of “Tree Inams”.

     Yeomiahs, though treated as pensions, are in fact imams granted by former governments.  They are of two kinds viz. those granted for service and those for subsistence.  The former have been granted for services such as performing worship in a mosque, lighting tombs, imparting instructions in the Koran or the Persian language etc and the latter for the maintenance of the grantees and their families either as an act of charity or on account of faithful services rendered by them to the Government.

ZAMINDARIS

  Zamindary or Permanently Settled Estates:-  By Zamindary system large tracts of lands are entrusted to Zamindars or proprietors of the soil who were made directly responsible for a fixed permanent revenue to Government known as Paishkish. Of the whole district, one-third is Zamindary and mitta tract.  The remaining two-thirds are of ryotwari tenure. The  zamindars hold their zamins under a Sanad known as the Istimirar  Sanad (Sanad mikliut Istimirar) issued at the time of the Governor- General, Lord Cornwallis, in 1803. Mittahs are dismembered portions of ancient zamindaris sold for debts and purchased by some rich Vellalahs and others.  To give one instance, the ancient zamindary of Chockempatti with a Paishkish of Rs. 25,550 fell in 18 lots to various persons who are now known as Mittadars.

The ancient zamindaris in the district who had Impartible Estates in Tirunelveli district as follows:

1.  Ambasamudram Taluqs  - Singampatti and Urkad Zamin.

 2.  Koilpatti Taluqs  _  Ettayapuram, Attankarai, Maniyachi, and Kadambur Zamin.

              3. Sankaranayanarkoil Taluqs -  Sivagiri, Thalavankottai and Alagapuri Zamin.

              4. Tenkasi Taluq  -  Uthumalai Zamin

     The first collector of Tiruneveli Mr. Lushington calls Tiruneveli as the fairest province of the Carnatic.  He commenced operations of measurements of all lands both wet and dry. The Southern Taluqs of Tirunelveli, Tenkasi, Nangunery, Ambasamudram, Ottapidaram, Srivaikuntam are the wet Taluqs  whereas the Northern Taluqs of Srivilliputtur, Sankarankoil and Sattur are the dry  Taluqs. The nature of soils, cultivation practices and cropping pattern are the factors which led to this division of the district into dry and wet taluqs a relatively lesser level of prosperity prevails in the dry taluqs.  The economic prosperity in turn influenced women’s education in the Tirunelveli district.

Mr. R.K. Puckle, a former famous Collector of the District, whose name is still a house-hold in Tiruneveli observed in 1868, that the irrigation works already existing had made Tiruneveli a prosperous district and have enabled it to rank next to Tanjore and Godavari

from a revenue point of view.  The irrigation works were greatly improved during Mr. Puckle’s administration of the district.  In memory of Mr. Puckle, there is the Puckle’s caste girls school in Tirunevelly and the Puckle’s channel at Tuticorin. This district has more towns (28 towns) than any other district and larger population.  There are three Municipalities viz., Tinnevelly, Palamcottah and Tuticorin  in 1931.

HISTORY 

     In ancient period  Tirunelveli district had no separate existence, but formed merely the southern portion of the Pandya country and continued to be so under the rule of the Cholas, the early Muslims and the Nayaks as well as the Pandyas themselves.  There are literary references which show that when the Pandya country came under the Imperial Cholas, it was known as Rajaraja Valanadu since 991 A.D.  It became Rajaraja Mandalam in A.D. 1012. The country was a subdivided into Valanadus and the areas now Tirunelveli district comprised the Mudikonda Cholavalanadu.  The Valanadu was divided into many nadus and Kurrams.  The Nadus and Kurrams as evidenced from the inscriptions of the district are Kilvembu nadu (Tirunelveli and sevalapperi), Melvembunadu (Cheranmadevi and Suttamalli, Thiruvazhuthi Valanadu (Karukkurichi), Mulli nadu, (Ambasamudram and Kallidaikurichi), Anma nadu (Cholapuram), Vanavan nadu (Kalakadu), Thannari nadu and Vadavari nadu (Sankarankoil and Vasudevanallur), and Arasur nadu (Kayathar).  The Kurrams, mentioned are Tirukkanaper Kurram and Milali Kurram. The administrative sub divisions ceased to exist gradually after the rule of the Kulottunga –I.  Taking advantage of the civil war in the Pandya Kingdom, Malik Kafur invaded and established the Mohammedan rule in Madurai which collaped along with the Khilji Sultanate at Delhi. After a precarious existence for nearly half a century it fell to the onslaught of the local powers led by Kumara Kampana, a Vijayanagar ruler.  thus, from the period of the Second Pandya   empire to the Vijayanagar regime, there were frequent changes in the administrative divisions and the governing system.

            According to the Tamil tradition, the Cheras, Cholas,and Pandyas were the three royal brothers, who lived together at Korkai on Tambraparni river.  Eventually, a separation took place and the pandya remained at korkai whereas the Chera in the west and the Chola in the north established their own kingdoms.  Pandya’s capital was Korkai and the district remained in the hands of the Pandya till about A.D. 1064, when it was conquered by Rajendra Chola who assumed the name Sundara Pandya.  But the Aryan settlements under the Chief Rishi Agastya on the Agastya Hills led to the decline of Pandya Kingdom which paved way for the rise of Aryan race in Tirunelveli district.  Agastya was considered as the founder of the Tamil language and he came to this area prior to the era of the Greek traders. Ptolemy speaks about the Pandya country and its famous pearl fisheries which it proves that Korkai was the first Pandya capital.[30]

     It is necessary to say about the occupation of Portuguese and Dutch settlements in Tiruneveli and how it merge with this district and its significance. Before the occupation of Tiruneveli by the British, the Portuguese occupied , in A.D. 1532,Tuticorin, the most important seaport town – next in rank to the port of Madras, and subsequently the minor ports of Punnaikayal (Srivaikuntam taluq), Vembar (Koilpati taluq) and Manapad (Tiruchendur taluq).After the decline of the Portuguese power in Tiruneveli, the Dutch, occupied Tuticorin  in 1658.  The Dutch power declined in A.D. 1736.  The Dutch Fort  at Tangacherry, west of Quilon, jutting into sea, which dates its origin in A.D. 1781, is now the British settlement of Tangacherry attached to the Tinnevelly Collectorate.  Another early Portuguese settlement of the Travancore coast, Anjengo, (the birth place of the famous historian Robert Ormes)  came under the British  control, is also attached to the Tinnevelly district along with Tangacherry. At this juncture,  the poligars obtained the possession of pearl fishery and established profitable trade and they were soon again in open rebellion.   In the early 14^th century Alauddin Khilji occupied  this district and within a short period  it was restored by the Pandya King.  In A.D. 1559 Tirunelveli fell into the hands of the Nayaks of Madurai.Visvanatha Nayak ruled the Madura kingdom from A.D.  1559 to A.D.   1563 The Lady ruler of the Nayak Dynasty was the famous Mangammal, who ruled over Madura from A.D.    1689 to A.D. 1704.   In A.D.  1736, when the Nizam-ul-Mulk, the Subadar of deccan expelled the Marathas from southern India, Tirunelveli passed under the nominal rule of the Nawab of Arcot.  When the country passed from the Madurai nayaks to the Nawabs of Arcot in 1736, the Palayams continued and the area collectively came to be known as Tirunelveli Province. Tinnevelly became independent of Madura in A.D.   1744. However, actual authority lay in the hands of a number of independent chiefs of the district called Poligars who were originally feudal barons appointed by the Nayak deputies who had after the fall of the dynasty assumed wider powers.  They had forts in the hills and in the dense jungle with which the district was covered and maintained about 30,000 troops and were continuously fighting with each other or in revolt against the paramount power. On account of the then disorder in the country, the British first interfered in A.D. 1755, at the request of the Nawab.  A British expedition under Major Harren and Mahfuzukhan in 1757 brought some sort of order in Tirunelveli and the country was rented to the latter. The inability of Mahfuzukhan to control the poligars, induced the Madras government to send an expedition under Mohamed Yusuf Khan their sepoy commandant to help him.  This man eventually became the renter of Tirunelveli and rebelled in 1763 and had taken and hanged.  From then onwards the troops were commanded by the British officers where the country was administered on behalf of the Nawab by the native officials.  As this system of divided responsibility created administrative problems, in 1781 the Nawab assigned the revenue duties to the East India Company Civil Officers known as the superintendents of Assigned Revenue.  The first Receiver of the Assigned Revenue appointed in the year 1781 to the then Tirunelveli province, virtually the first Collector, was George Proctor who was succeeded by Irwin in 1783. During this system of running the country, the Poligars were a source of hindrance to the British administration. At that time the  British were too  busy in wars with Hyder Ali and the poligars continued to be troublesome.  These poligars with one or two exceptions joined together and gave a lot of trouble under the leadership of Puli Thevar, the first poligar who fought against the British from 1751to1765.  This poligar war was considered as the First Poligar War, which was followed by, the Ramanathapuram and Sivaganga royal families.  The First Tamil Royal Woman Velunachiaar and her captain Quilli, who fought against the British and retain her throne. This war must be the first victorious war against the British in India.  In 1783, Colonel Fullerton reduced one of the poligars at Panchalumkurichi near Ottapidaram of Kattabomman Nayak. At this juncture, the East India Company Government at Madras, however, took over the general administration of the country by unilateral proclamation of 7^th August 1790.  They called this action as the ‘Assumption of Management of the Nawab’s Country’.  On 23^rd July 1790, even before the date of the proclamation, Collectors had been appointed to various other districts.      Benjamin Torin, who had acquaintance with the district as the Pay Master General of Palayamkottai, was appointed the Collector of the then Tirunelveli and the dependent Palayakars.  By the Treaty of 1792, between the Nawab of Arcot and the British, the Collector was redesignated as the ‘Collector of the Zamindar and Poligar Peshcush in the Tinnevelly, Madurai, Trichinapoly, Ramanathapuram and Sivaganga districts.  Ramanathapuram served as the headquarters of the Collector.  Torin was succeeded by Landon as the Collector and on his death in 1794, George Powney became the Collector.  At the close of the 1797, Jackson was appointed Collector.  At this juncture, the poligars headed by Kattabomman Nayak again gave trouble by revolting in the Ramanathapuram territory of Tirunelveli.  A British force was sent to Tirunelveli under Major Bannerman and the Last  Poligar War followed.

 Panchalumkurichi was taken and its poligar was hanged and estates of his allies were confiscated.  Some of the poligars notably the chief of Ettaiyapuram, helped the British.  Two years later, some dangerous characters who had been confined in the fort of Palayamcottah broke loose and the poligar war brokeout. Panchalumkurichi fell after a Nawab to his principal Amildar in Tirunelveli to transfer all his powers to the Company’s representative. At this juncture Jackson was succeeded by Lushington in 1799. On 31^st  July 1801, Mr. Lushington became the first Collector of Tiruneveli, most stubborn resistance.  The fort was destroyed, and the site of the palace was ploughed over.  The ring leaders of the rebellion were hanged and their accomplices were transported.  Bearing of arms by general public was prohibited.   During his period the final war against the polayakkkars came to an end.  The Nawab of Arcot ceded the entire Carnatic to the East India Company by a Treaty signed on 31^st  July 1801.  On the same day, an order was issued by Mr. Lushington when Tirunelveli came absolutely into the hands of the British

East India Company. He moved his headquarters to Tirunelveli which had been hitherto in Ramanathapuram.  A week later he reported to Madras that the province of Tirunelveli had been brought under the Company’s authority.  By  1801, the former Tirunelveli province which had jurisdiction up to Tiruchirappalli was divided into Tiruchirappalli, Madurai and Tirunelveli districts.  The land south of Madurai formed Tiruneveli district, the then southern most district of the Madras Presidency since the present Kanniyakumari district was then with the State of Travancore. 

TIRUNELVELI DISTRICT BY 1800

    When the British assumed the administration of the district, it was divided in to 19 taluks and 15 palayams that  came to be called as Zamins and the smaller Zamins as Mittahs. In the year 1838 the Taluqs were reconstituted by which the total number of  taluqs were13. Once again  in the year 1860, the 13 taluqs were reduced to nine by territorial redistribution.  Later, in the year 1893,  Tenkarai taluq alone was renamed as Srivaikundam taluk.   In the year 1910 when Ramanathapuram district was carved out of the composite districts of Madurai and Tirunelveli, the taluqs of Sattur and Srivilliputhur were transferred to the newly created district.  In the same year, the Ottapidaram taluk came to be known as Koilpatti taluq and the headquarters also was shifted from Ottapidaram to Koilpatti.  The Srivaikundam taluq was bifurcated into two as Tiruchendur and Srivaikundam.  The Sankarankoil, Nanguneri, Tirunelveli, Tenkasi and Ambasamudram taluks continued to function as before.  By the year 1933, along with eight Taluqs , two sub taluqs were created at Sivagiri and Sattankulam.  Till 1956, Shengottai Taluq remain under the control of Travancore State.

    Thus the above description  help  to understand the geographical location and its influence on the growth and development of women’s education in Tirunelveli district between 1800 to 1947.  Prosperity of the district on one side and drought on the other side motivated the people to send their daughters to acquire education from mission schools.  The dry part of the district, led to the parent to send their daughters to vocational institutions started by the missionaries  and to make the women self reliant and economically independent with the available materials obtained from palm trees.