MEDIA AND HUMAN RIGHTS

“Journalism in India – which has major strengths and resources, physical and intellectual, at its command – needs an internal accountability to higher intellectual and ethical standards, a more precise and less breathless style of work, and public advocacy of its role as a vital part of the striving for a democratic, just society.”¹  -  Mr. N. Ram.

The media play a significant role in forming and influencing people’s attitudes and behavior.  It has a central role in mediating information and forming public opinion.  It media casts an eye on events that few of us directly experience and renders remote happenings observable and meaningful.  In addition to news stories, feature articles, and investigative journalism, sporadic mass media education and prevention campaigns are launched.  These campaigns usually Endeavour to broaden community knowledge of human abuse and neglect, to influence people’s attitudes towards under privileged children, young people based on community or religion or regional variations. Mass media campaigns reveals many examples of campaigns impacting on public knowledge about issues such as work safety, drug and alcohol use, drink driving, speeding, cigarette smoking, obesity, AIDS, and domestic violence. Attitudinal and behavioural change may occur during campaigns, but it may be short lived, lapsing when campaigns end.

 The two main arms of media are print media and electronic media. Both the media highlighting violence assaulted on that day anywhere else in the world broadcasting all murders, kidnappings, robberies in the form of news, movies, videos, cartoons and video games, serials, which resulting in increasing violence  in the society. To avoid increasing violence in the society, UNESCO and other media agencies formulated guidelines to minimize human rights violation.

Media has its visible and invisible impact on all aspects of modern life.  The newspaper, the radio, the T.V., the advertisement and the film played the major media of modern mass communication and wage a frantic war of ideas, ideologies and opinions every day on the tensile nerves of our social fabric.  The persons who are on the back of all media, carry out their functions in their diverse capacities not only for the performance of their basic duties to inform, instruct and entertain but also quite often to opinionate their audience.²  Mass media has the capacity of reach “simultaneously” many thousands of people who are not related to the sender.  It depends on “technical devices” or “machines” to quickly distribute messages to diverse audiences often unknown to each other.  It is accessible to many people, but may be avoided.  It is “controlled by gatekeepers” who censor the content of messages.  However, mass communication simultaneously presents opportunities and limitations, both of which require consideration when it affects human rights.

HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATION BY MEDIA

            The mass media have wielded enormous power to their own ends.  The proprietors have propagated their own opinions; sometimes to become subordinated to big business and sometimes have allowed the advertisers to control the editorial policy and content.  The mass media have often paid more attention to the superficial and sensational aspects in their reporting on human events than to the significant aspects and their recreational prices have frequently been unsubstantial,  endangered public morals and have invaded people’s private unjustifiably.  The mass media are controlled by a socio-economic class in general terms, “the entrepreneurial class” and access to the media is difficult for the new comer or underprivileged people.  At the national and international level men’s minds are being subjected to a ceaseless and clever bombardment of messages³.  These messages are calculated to influence and control, which cause for human rights violation. “Kho”   and “Khaththi” are the recent Tamil movies clearly depict the position of media and how it affects the human rights violation in the society and position of media workers.

PREVENTIVE MEASURES TO STOP HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATION

Media campaigns required at home and outside home by posters, cinema media should be directed to the general community, parents, children, perpetrators, victims and indirect professionals.  A wide range of media approaches should be used, including advertising, community service announcements, publicity i.e. feature articles and documentaries and edutainment i.e. the  deliberate inclusion of educational messages in entertainment vehicles such as TV soap operas.  Media campaigns can serve a number of roles, but primarily placing the issue on the community’s agenda; framing the issue;  eliciting  reports of abuse; directing individuals to sources of information; changing social norms; modeling appropriate and inappropriate behaviours; and increasing the awareness of the target audience with respect to their own behavior and hence increasing the likelihood of the individual assessing his or her own behavior and their self responsibility for such behaviour.  Mass media helps to solve political agency problems and make governments more accountable.  The intuition of what is driving the results is simple – by making the actions of the politicians more transparent the media is providing information to citizens as to the likelihood that they will protected in the future.  Citizens in turn are using this information in their voting decisions.

WHAT SHOULD BE AVOIDED TO PROMOTE WORLD PEACE?

Most of the media give much more attention to crime, deaths, disasters, wars and strife than to harmonious communities, acts of kindness and win-win conflict resolution. The mass media frequently create unrealistic fears about criminals, foreign peoples and mass protest.  “News” often is more like entertainment than information or education.  News reports, especially on television, are typically given without much overt context.   Consumers of the media consequently don’t understand the “facts” that are often wrong or misleading.  Powerful groups, especially governments and large corporations, shape the news in a range of ways, such as by providing selected information, offering access to stories in exchange for favourable coverage, spreading disinformation, and threatening reprisal.  Advertising is another powerful influence on commercial media.

MEDIA ENSURES HUMAN RIGHTS

Media ensures modernity in approach to create awareness and also ensures radicalism in thought and action, promise and perfection; and to earnestly shoulder social responsibilities of imparting education, making everyone aware of health and hygiene, economy and affluence and , above all, inspiring to be self-supporting and self-esteemed in every sphere of life this is, indeed, a new vision of mass education for social consciousness – a vision that allows humanity to be enriched with the spirit of social  transcendence.⁴

A free press can only flourish in a democratic environment and to strengthen the democratic foundation of the state.  According to the guidelines the Media should avoid exaggeration or distortion of facts or incidents in relation to communal matters or giving currency to unverified  rumors’, suspicions or inferences, as if they were facts and base their comments on them.  Encouraging or condoning violence even in the face of provocation a  means of obtaining redress of grievances, whether the same be genuine or not.  Avoid falsely giving a communal colour to incident in which members of different communities happen to be involved.  Avoid emphasizing matters that are apt to produce communal hatred or ill – will or fostering feelings of distrust between communities.  Not publishing alarming news which is in substance untrue or making provocative comments on such news or views, which embitter relations between different communities or regional or linguistic groups.  Avoid exaggerating actual happenings to achieve sensationalism, and publication of news which adversely affect communal harmony with banner headlines or in distinctive types.  Avoid making disrespectful, derogatory or insulting remarks on, or reference to, the different religions or faiths or founders.

Hence, Media in a democratic country has a primary duty to report events objectively and faithfully, it has also a larger obligation to the nation to defend and preserve the democratic way of life.  Therefore, it is necessary for the press to voluntarily adopt a policy not to play up or give undue publicity or to give ‘celebrity’ treatment to news, which lend to promote authoritarian and dictatorial trends or to aggravate communal or regional tensions.⁵ Media should endeavour at all times to promote the unity of the country and nation, pride in the country, its people, its achievements and its strength in diversity. Journalist should be most circumspect in dealing with movements and ideas which promote regionalism at the cost of national unity.

Responsibility shall be assumed for all information and comments published.  If responsibility is disclaimed, this will be explicitly stated.  Confidences shall always be respected, professional secrecy must be preserved. Any report found to be inaccurate and any comment on inaccurate reports shall be voluntarily rectified.  It shall be obligatory to give fair publicity to a correction of contradiction when a report published is shown to be false or inaccurate in material particulars.  Journalists or reporter shall not allow personal interest to influence professional conduct.  There is nothing so unworthy as the acceptance or demand of a bribe or inducement for the exercise by a journalist of his power to give or deny publicity to news or comments.  Journalists shall be very conscious of their obligation to their fellows in the profession and shall not seek to deprive fellow journalists of their livelihood by unfair means.

INTERNATIONAL CODE OF ETHICS AND HUMAN RIGHTS

World Journalist about 400,000 members representing a consultative meeting under the auspices of UNESCO since 1978.  The Second consultative meeting was held at Mexico City in 1980. In this meeting all representatives expressed its support to the UNESCO Declaration on fundamental Principles concerning the contribution of the Mass Media to strengthening Peace and International Understanding, to the promotion of Human Rights and to countering Racialism, apartheid and incitement of War.  It also adopted the “Mexico Declaration” with a set of principles regarding National and regional codes of journalistic ethics and international legal nature. 

The fourth consultative meeting was held at Prague and Paris in 1983, which noted the lasting value of the UNESCO Declaration in which it is stated inter alia that “the exercise of freedom of opinion, expression and information, recognized as an integral part of human rights and fundamental freedoms, is a vital factor in the strengthening of peace and international understanding”.  Further, the meeting recognized the important role which information and communication play in the contemporary world, both in national and international spheres, with a growing social responsibility being placed upon the mass media and journalists.  The VI principle stated about the respect for privacy and Human Dignity.  An integral part of the professional standards of the journalist is respect for the right of the individual to privacy and human dignity, in conformity with provisions of international and national law concerning protection of the rights and the reputation of others and prohibiting libel, calumny, slander and defamation.

Principle VII ensure respect for Public interest.  The journalist gives due respect for the national community, its democratic institutions and public morals. Principle VIII respect for Universal Values and Diversity of Cultures. A true journalist stands for the universal values of humanism, above all peace, democracy, human rights, social progress and national liberation, while respecting the distinctive character, value and dignity of each culture, as well as the right of each people freely to choose and develop its political, social, economic and cultural systems.  Thus the journalist participates actively in the social transformation towards democratic betterment of society and contributes through dialogue to a climate of confidence in international relations conductive to peace and justice everywhere, to détente, disarmament and national development.  It belongs to the ethics of the profession that the journalist be aware of relevant provisions contained in international conventions, declarations and resolutions.

Principle IX mentioned that Elimination of War and other Great Evils Confronting Humanity.  The ethical commitment to the universal values of humanism calls for the journalist to abstain from any justification for, or incitement to, wars of aggression and the arms race, especially in nuclear weapons, and all other forms of violence, hatred or discrimination, especially racialism and apartheid, oppression by tyrannical regimes, colonialism and neo-colonialism, as well as other great evils which afflict humanity, such as poverty, malnutrition and diseases.  By doing so, the journalist can help eliminate ignorance and misunderstanding among peoples, make nationals of a country sensitive to the needs and desires of others, ensure the respect for the rights and dignity of all nations, all  peoples and all  individuals without distinction of race, sex, language, nationality, religion or philosophical conviction.⁶  

A well known Delhi – based NGOs, working in the area of consumer protection, public interest litigation and other important matters concerning improvement in civic life in a recent write up stated that TV is no longer just a means for informing news, disseminating information and building opinion.  It is also for providing entertainment. The unfortunate development is that it has increasingly become the instrument for projecting crime, thrillers, horrors, vulgarity and obscenity.  Scenes of sex, crime and violence capture the imagination of large sections of viewers, especially adult and children and creating disturbing impact on society.

There are 60 types of violence projected on TV, both audio and visual⁷. These include slapping, threats, screaming, shooting, assaulting, abusing, pushing, stabbing, threats, torture, eeric sound tracks and threatening music. In one such serial, as many as 17 acts of violence were found in one episode of 25 minutes.  These included assaulting, slapping, plunging, shooting, strangulations, and supernatural occurrences.  Family dram serials also often depict conflicts which involve violence.  These carry scenes of domestic violence, often involving children, adults and women. These circumstances need to be urgently considered by governmental authorities as well as social activists so that measures can be devised and adopted for mitigating the situation.  These include persuading channels to adopt self-regulating measures, imbibing in producer’s norms and guidelines and dealing with defaulters.  They should avoid repeated these shows at an earlier time, and also put across a written or verbal warning before such a programme begins.  Child – specific progrmmes should be developmed and telecast by all channels.  It is necessary that people should raise voice against the growing tendency of depicting scenes of crime and violence on TV programmes serials, these can prove disastrous to the society and its future build-up.  Ways and means must be devised for avoidance of the slide towards social disaster.  The strength of the mass media lies in helping to put issues on the public agenda, in reinforcing local efforts, in raising consciousness about issues and in conveying simple information and less effective in conveying complex information and promote peace at home, nation and international level.

BIBLICAL THOUGHTS ON WOMEN’ S MARRIAGE AND DIVOCE

     The family is portrayed as the basic unit of society, and order within the family is the guarantor of social and political order. The vast provision of literature aims to ensure that individuals understand their integral roles within a smoothly functioning family and emphasizes the importance of marital and family stability for society and polity.  Fundamental to these considerations is religion, and particularly in Christianity, marriage is ordained by God and familiar relationships are prescribed by God.  Any behavior that runs counter to harmony in marriage or the family not only threatens social stability but is also regarded as contrary to the Divine Commandments.  However reconciling the apparently irreconcilable differences of the Biblical texts that allow divorce and those prohibit divorce.  Although, the New Testament references to divorce were ambiguous enough to prevent a rapid consensus within the church that divorce was wholly unacceptable, it is notable that the Christian debate for and against divorce drew on both texts from the Old Testament as well as the New Testament.  This study focuses on the Biblical thoughts on women’s marriage and divorce or forced divorce in the present scenario.

     The major objectives of this study will be focus on why the man has the right to divorce his wife and denial of rights for a woman.  To the present society being plunged into a state of moral disintegration as the number of divorces rises beyond expected and controllable levels affecting people of all race, caste, culture and religion.

     This study analyses the Christian thoughts on marriage and divorce is suitable for the present scenario or not.  Whether the age old Christian thoughts applicable to the entire world which has varied culture and tradition.  Moreover, this paper reveals the contradictory thoughts of Christian Philosophy on Divorce in Old Testament and New Testament. Because Indian Penal Code,  Christian Marriage Acts has written on the basis of Biblical thoughts, which is applicable to the present situation or not.

Institutions of Marriage in the Ancient Society:

Genesis 1 and 2, clearly stated that God’s original plan for humanity as one man to one woman for life.  However, there was no code of rules required until the standards of society had fallen. Hence, the law-code of King Hammurabi of Babylon came into practice about 1700 BC which stated that:  “A man would not take a second wife unless the first was unable to have children. The husband was allowed a secondary wife (a concubine), or his wife might give him a slave-girl, to have children by her.  The children of the slave-girl, shall not be sent away.”  The above statement make it clear that women is the sole responsible for infertility, so she has to allow her husband to marry another girl or give him a slave-girl to have children.  Further it stated that nothing to say about the position of a second wife, but ensure the protection to her children.  In modern scenario scientifically proved that male or female may have the problem of infertility.  It may curable or the girls may beget a child with the help of scientific approach or hiring mothers.  However, Indian Penal Code also favour to the law- code of King Hammurabi that Divorce a woman, if she is not fit for beget heir.

      Male had the right to marry a secondary wife or his wife allowed him to get children by the slave girl. Here again the denial of rights of the first wife but also a slave-girl.  Thus, two women’s life is a questionable one; they couldn’t raise voice against the male.  Slave – girl had no rights to claim as equal to the first wife.  The slave-girl’s position is very pitiable, dependable and economically, socially degraded by her own family. For instance, Abraham at first only had one wife, Sarah, since she was barren, he took her slave-girl, Haggar (Genesis 16:1-2). Genesis23:1-2 refers that When Sarah died Abraham  married Qeturah as his second wife. Nahor (Genesis22:20-24) had children by his wife Milkah, and a concubine, Remuah.  This seems to be against the law of King Hammurabi however, polygamy was becoming a custom of the time.’

Polygamy Practice:

     According to Roland de Vaux, “The husband can, however, himself take a concubine, even if his wife has borne him children, but the concubine never has the same rights as his wife and he may not take a second concubine unless the first is barren.”   In the Fifteenth Century BC, in the region of Kirkuk, the same customs were prevalent, but the barren wife was under an obligation to provide a concubine for her husband. In the midst of this polygamy, there was still a relative monogamy because there was only one lawful wife.  However, it seems as though the Patriarchs followed a less stringent code of conduct than that which prevailed in Mesopotamia.  In Genesis29:15-30 and 30:1-9, Jacob married the two sisters, Leah and Rachel, each of whom gave him her maid.  In Indian Society, polygamy was acceptable practices in royal patriarchal society (women of the harem), in which women were less privileged than male. Still this practice is prevailed among the people in certain villages, but the government executed law against them, but not yet completely eradicated.

      By the end of the Second Millennium BC, the Assyrian Code of Law, assigned an intermediary place between the wife and the concubine, who is a slave, to the esirtu (Woman of the harem).  A man may have several esirtu and they may be raised to the rank of a wife.  Later the Talmud fixed the number of wives at four for a subject, eighteen for a king.

     It is clearly stated in the books of Samuel and Kings that the most common form of marriage in the Israelite society was monogamy.  There is not a single case recorded of bigamy among the commoners, (except that of Samuel’s father, at the very beginning of the period).  Also, there is no reference about polygamy in the wisdom books.  Although the New Testament upholds the ideal of monogamy, it does not prohibit polygamy except in the case of a bishop or a deacon. It is clear that polygamy was rarely practiced by the people and by Christian kings without the disapproval of the Church.   Likewise in India, only royal families or economically high status people used to have bigamy or concubines.  But, they were considered as illegal wives.  They had no rights to claim property or hereditary rights like the children of the first wife.  Indian society based on monogamy form of marriage is acceptable by the commoners.

A Purchase Theory:

     According to Purchase Theory,  the married woman came under the authority of her husband.   Exodus 20:17 refers that legally man counts as being the owner of his wife, and the wife is considered as the husband’s possession.    In Deuteronomy 21:13, 24:1, to ‘marry a wife’ is expressed by the Hebrew verb Ba’al, the root meaning of which is to ‘become a master’.  However, the question that now arises is whether a wife is really the property of her husband, in other words, had he bought her?  Ethnographers have suggested that the Israelites practiced a form of ‘Marriage by Purchase’, i.e.  ‘A Purchase-Theory’.  This theory can be substantiated by the custom of the mohar (dowry/bride-price).   Still this practice is existed among the Indian Society.

The Mohar:

     The ‘mohar’ was a sum of money, which was paid to the father of the bride in exchange for the hand of his daughter in marriage.  The amount of the mohar varied and depended on the father of the girl and the social standing of the family.  Payment of the mohar could be compound by service, e.g. like Jacob did for both his wives (Genesis 29:15-30). In India also has the same practice, that either dowry paid by bride family or by bride –groom family.  In ancient period ‘Sheridan’ has given by the girls’ family to bride, now this practice cause for many evil practices like dowry death, persecution by the in-laws led the girl to commit suicide or divorce and forced divorce.  

     Alternatively, mohar was paid  by accomplishing an appointed task,  as David did for Michal (I Samuel 18:25-27).  David demonstrated a becoming modesty (I Samuel 18:18-23), which was intertwined with his inability to pay the mohar appropriate for a King’s daughter.  The Mohar was one hundred foreskins of the Philistines – The task in exchange for the hand of his daughter was to take vengeance on the King’s enemies.  This obligation to pay a sum of money, or its equivalent, to the girl’s family obviously gives the Israelite marriage the outward appearance of a ‘purchase.’  In Indian History, there are so many references available that through marriage alliance, the neighbouring king avoid war, or giving her daughter as compensation for the King’s victory.

      However, there is a difference between compensation given to the family of the bride and the price paid for a woman.  The difference becomes clear, if we compare the mohar marriage with purchase marriage, i.e. a girl could be sold by her father to another man who intended her to be his own, or his son’s concubine.  Thus, she was a slave, and could be resold.  Here, women were treated as commodity, not considered her as equal partner in life, inhuman attitude is encouraged by this activities.  Our Indian Constitution guaranteed that all are equal’ . However, in Indian society, there is a practice to give dowry in order to maintain their statuesque to bride or bride groom irrespective of religion.  According to the practice of their caste, bride or bride groom purchased their partners by giving dowry or in the name of gift.

Beena And Erebu Marriage:

     By marriage a woman left her parents and went to live with her husband and joined his clan.  This was the normal custom.  In Genesis 24:58-59, Rebecca left her father and mother, in Genesis 24:5-8, Abraham would not allow Isaac to go to Mesopotamia unless the wife chosen for him agreed to come to Canaan.  However, there are few cases in the Bible where there was an exception.  In Genesis 31:26, 43 Jacob, after marrying Leah and Rachel, continued to live with his father-in-law, Laban.  In Judge 8:31, Gideon had a concubine who continued to live with her family at Shechem, Samson married a Philistine woman of Timnah, he continued to live with her parents, where Samson visited her (Judges 14:8, 15:1-2).  This type of marriage where the wife does not leave her father’s house, the husband takes up residence in her home and relinquishes his connections with his own clan, is called “beena marriage”.   Assyrian  law also provided for a case where a married woman continued to live with her father, this type of marriage was called “erebu”.  In general  in India, they followed the normal customs like after marriage a woman left her parents and went to live with her husband or his family.  However, the girl is the only daughter or no son in the family means, the bride groom takes up residence in her home.

Arranged Marriage:

     The Bible stipulated no age at which a girl could be married.  However, for centuries the custom in the East was for boys and girls to be married while they were very young. In the later days, the Jewish Rabbis fixed the minimum age for marriage at twelve years for a girl and thirteen years for a boy.  As a result of this practice parents made all the decisions when a marriage was being arranged.  Genesis Chapter 29:15 says that once the proposal of marriage had been put to the girl’s parents, they discussed the conditions, especially the amount of the mohar.  Arranged marriage led to the discussion of the mohar, that led to the girl lost her independence to decide her future partner.  In India, Child marriage prevailed till 1829, when the Saradah Act passed by the British Government.  The Age of Consent rise the marriageable age to 10, then to 12.  The parent only decided and arranged the marriage.

         In Genesis 24:4, this research notes that Abraham sent his servant to find Isaac a wife among his own family in Mesopotamia.  Laban declared that he would rather give his daughter to Jacob than to a stranger.  Tobias also advised his son   to choose a wife within his tribe (Tobias 4:12).  This statement make it clear that inter caste or inter clan marriage was not practiced.  In Indian society, even after converted to Christianity also sticks on to marry within the caste (see impact of mixed marriages).

     Marriages  also took place between persons of different families and even with foreign women. Joseph married an Egyptian, Moses married a Midianite.  Naomi’s two daughter-in –laws were Moabites.  Israelite women were also married to foreigners Batsheba to a Kittite, and the mother of Hiram, the bronze worker to a Tyrian.   However, at present this is a common phenomena that marry  a foreign women is considered as cultural sharing in India.  Inter caste marriages also accepted unconditionally by the parents due to the economically independent son and daughter of the family. This is the main reason for the more number of divorce would happened in the society due to lack of knowledge about others culture and tradition cause for misunderstanding between the couple.

Impact of Mixed Marriages:

     These mixed marriages first started with Kings for political reasons. However, it later became common among the subjects after settlement in Canaan (Judges 3:6).  The results of these mixed marriages were firstly that they ‘tainted the purity’ of Israel’s blood, secondly that they ‘endangered its religious faith’ (I Kings 11:4).  And thirdly, they were ‘forbidden by law’ (Exodus 34:15-16, Deuteronomy 7:3-4).37  In Indian Society also have the same reasons for avoiding the mixed marriages and castes is the prime cause for avoiding mixed marriages and each caste people has some unique cultural practices.  In case of mixed marriages on the basis of caste or religion, that led to the misunderstanding between the couples to understand the cultural values on both the side, finally ended with divorce.  At the time of court cases dealing with the validity of a “Christian marriage,” as with cases involving inheritance, illustrate the role of the Indian judiciary in defining religious boundaries.   The Madras High Court’s application of the Indian Christian Marriage Act, had the effect of separating a “Christian community” from the domain of “Hindu caste society” recognisized by the courts.  By extricating Christians from the “little societies” of caste, the judiciary furthered the marginalization of Christians from larger construction of Hindu society.  A set of related cases involving at least one Christian marital partner reveals a pattern of regulation whereby the courts regarded Christian identity and Hindu identity as mutual exclusive. The Madras judiciary, discussed in three sections, while constructing a Christian community around marriage, falsely ascribed the Anglican notion of a “clandestine marriage” to Christian marrying according to local caste rites.  The next section explains how, in judging the validity of inter-religious marriages, the courts came to regard the marriage ceremony itself as a site for the public profession of religious faith.  The final section of the three addresses the interplay between categories of religious identity and notions of monogamy and desertion derived from divorce cases.

    For instance, the Nadars of Tinnevelly, retained their caste solidarity well after conversion to Christianity and continued to intermarry with Hindu Nadars.  Because marital preferences so strongly signified the identity of a particular caste, they often revealed the pre-eminence of caste identity  over the imagined Christian identity. The same practices prevailed among the Christian Maravar Community of Tinnevelly.     The Nadar and Maravar Christians, marrying outside of one’s caste was far more offensive than marrying a non-Christian.  Such privileging of caste over religion by Christians themselves stood at odds with the judiciary’s tendency to regulate marriage according to religion.  Thus, the enforcement of the Indian Christian Marriage Act of 1872, renamed as Christian Marriage Act was often encumbered by the multiple identities of Indian Christians.  The enforcement of the Indian Christian Marriage Act worked against the tendency of Christian converts, especially those coming from lower social strata, to participate in more than one set of social relationships.  So it is a difficult task for the law makers and imposed a higher degree of uniformity upon Christian practices in India.

Engagements or Betrothal Ceremonies:

     The Hebrew word ‘aras’ literally meaning ‘engagement’ or ‘betrothal’, was a promise of marriage made sometime before the celebration of the wedding, according to the custom of Israel.  The same custom is prevailed in Tamil Nadu also.  Legal texts show that engagements were a recognized custom with ‘Judicial consequences’.  According to Deuteronomy 20:7, a man who was engaged, though not yet married, was excused from going to war.  In I Samuel 18:21, this research see the formula that was probably spoken by the girl’s father to make the engagement valid: ‘Today you shall be my son-in-law’.

     According to Roland  de Vaux, ‘in Israel and Mesopotamia, marriage was a purely civil contract’.  It was not sanctioned by any religious act.  Whereas in The Hebrew analogy denotes that the marriage is a religious pact. In India, marriage is a religious pact, especially  Christian marriages is considered as the Covenant of God, man should not  break the bond between the relationship between husband and wife in the name of divorce.  It is clear that the Biblical thought strictly against divorce.  In Proverbs 2:17, marriage is called the ‘Covenant of God’.  The Madras High Court also acknowledge the same that Christian Marriage in terms of monogamy i.e. an exclusive, life-long bond between one man and one woman.     It was custom among the Jews that a contract of marriage had to be signed.  In Tobias 7:13, a written contract of marriage is mentioned.  According to the Code of Hammurabi,  a marriage concluded without a contract is invalid. The formula pronounced at marriage according to the Elephantine contract was:  ‘She is my wife and I am her husband, from this day forever.’

     In assessing the early Israelite sociology for marriage  note that it was originally better, in close contracts of life for every marriageable woman to be in proper relationship to some man, rather than that improper relationships should arise in which the children would suffer because no one would be responsible for them.

Provision for Divorce:

      In the Jewish law of divorce men have been given great rights whereas sheer injustice has been done to women as they have been deprived of this right and they cannot demand divorce despite the defects and tyranny and oppression of their husbands.   

      There was no provision for divorce in the Christian law, Marriage was a permanent relation between the husband and wife; they could not be separated due to any reason.  This strictness was based on Christ’s teaching: “He who God unites cannot be disunited (Bible)”.  Christ’s saying was wrongly interpreted by his followers as it implied a moral lesson that divorce should not be given without any genuine reason.  It has been mentioned as follows: “A person who forsakes his wife, except on account of adultery, and marries a second woman commits sin.”

     According to the motivation given in Deuteronomy 24:1, a man could divorce his wife if he had ‘found some unseemly thing in her’.    The school of Rabbi Shammai acknowledged only adultery and misconduct for the grounds of divorce.   In India, the Divorce Act of 1869 defined the terms by which either partner of a Christian marriage could petition for a divorce. If the relations of husband and wife become strained and the efforts to effect reconciliation between them fail so that it is not possible for them to pull on, the husband can divorce his wife. According to Part III of the Divorce Act of 1869, a husband could petition the District Court or the High Court for a divorce on the grounds of his wife’s adultery.  A wife could petition for divorce on the ground that her husband had:  .... exchanged his profession of Christianity for the profession of some other religion, and gone through a form of marriage with another woman; or has been guilty of incestuous adultery, or bigamy with adultery or of marriage with another woman with adultery; or or rape, sodomy, or bestiality, or of adultery coupled with such cruelty as without adultery would have entitled her to a divorce a mensa at thoro; or of adultery coupled with descrtion, without reasonable excuse for two years or upwards.   But in the law of 1907, the ‘guilty’ was deleted and the court could now order the husband to pay the expenses of his wife despite complete separation between them.

Procedure of Divorce

     In the procedure of divorce, the husband made out a declaration contradicting that which had sealed the marriage, i.e. ‘she is no longer my wife and I am no longer her husband’.    In Assyria the formula for a divorce was : ‘I repudiate her’ or ‘ You are no more my wife’.  However, in Israel, Mesopotamia and Elephantine, they also practiced a custom in which the husband had to write his wife a certificate / bill/ writ of divorce, which allowed a woman to remarry.  According to IPC, in case of Christian Divorce, the judgment given after seven long years to get divorce. Almost all seven year, the mental agony of a girl or a man led them to take some wrong decision about their life and may commit suicide or had illegal life with someone.  Ultimately, it cause for cultural degradation in the name of religion.

Restrictions for Divorce:

     There were a few laws, which were laid to restrict the husband from the right of a divorce.  According to Deuteronomy 22:13-19, if a man had falsely accused his wife of not being a virgin when he married her, he could not divorce her.  Deuteronomy 22:28-29 stipulates that if a man had violated a girl, he was compelled to marry her.   If a divorced wife remarried and later her second husband died or liberated her by a divorce, the first husband was forbidden to take her back. with David, then given to another man, and finally taken back by David, however, David had never divorced her (I Samuel 18:20-27, 25:44, 2Samuel 3:13-16)

     Women had no right to ask for a divorce.  At the beginning of the Christian era, when Solome, the sister of Herod sent her husband Kostabar a letter of divorce, her actions were held to be against Jewish law. If the Gospel made reference to a woman divorcing her husband, it was the influence of Gentile customs. Whereas in India, women had the right to ask for a divorce, which  is guaranteed by our Constituion.

     According to the Code of Hammurabi, a husband could divorce his wife by pronouncing the appropriate formula, but he had to pay her compensation.  In Assyrian law, the husband had the right to divorce his wife without any compensation.  However, this led to the Assyrian marriage being complicated, because they often stipulated more onerous conditions for the husband.  When the marriages were arranged, the wife’s parents might protect her interests by special clauses.   Likewise in India, A woman, in order to fulfill her part of the contract, must produce male children; if she fails to produce  such children then a de facto divorce may occur with the infertile woman returning and remaining throughout her life at the village of her father. If she does not have male heirs, then she has no claims to inheritance of her husband’s estate except maintenance during her lifetime.

Comparison between Women in Israel Society and In Indian Society:

        According to Exodus 21:7and Deuteronomy 24:14,  a man could sell his daughter but, a man could never sell his wife. Whereas in Indian contest, women were respected so not to sold  by her father or by her husband, which is considered as offence and punished by law.

     A husband had the right to divorce his wife, but she was protected by the certificate of divorce (get), which guaranteed her freedom.  Within the family, respect for a wife increased on the birth of her first child.  This respect was even greater if the child was a boy. In Indian society, if a woman begets a boy baby first also respected by the family members.  The wisdom literature Proverbs 19:26, 23:22, 30:17 emphasized that children should respect both mother and the father equally. 

     The ceremony of a woman whose husband suspects her of adultery without proof is to take the woman before a priest.  She drinks the words of a curse mixed in water with the dust of the floor of the tabernacle.  If she is wrongly suspected, she goes away free.  The husband must then stop being jealous.  According to the book of Numbers tells the husband that without evidence he cannot take action against his wife.  Only the Lord knows and the question of guilt has to be left without the outcome of the ordeal.  If she is guilty, then the Lord will punish her by affliction.  In IPC (Indian Penal Code) ensure that the husband cannot take action against his wife without evidences, if he gave wrong information also punished by law.

          In Egypt it was custom that the wife was the head of the family, in Babylon, the wife could purchase property, take legal action, be a party to contracts, and she even had a share in her husband’s inheritance.  In the Colony of Elephantine, the Jewish wife acquired certain civil rights.  Since she owned property, she also became liable to taxation.

     When compare with other countries the Israelite and Indian woman had to do all the hard works at home.  Her role was to look after the flock, cook the food, do the spinning, etc. However, these tasks did not lower her status but rendered her sincere consideration, as a vital and important member in the family structure.  Many feminist theologians may argue that this picture of the Israelite and Indian woman, is a subordination to man, within a system of women oppression. However, one needs to take into consideration that it was custom in the Israelite society to be submissive to the authority of the man, who is the head of the family.

CONCLUSION

    Gottwald defined the society depicted in the Bible as a real historical society.  The Biblical literature is a product of that society, the literature’s form and ideas, as well as its descriptions of society and history, offer direct evidence of that society’s culture.  The encouragement of local religious and cultural identities was part of the imperial strategy.

       Israel had a unique family structure.  The several institutions of family such as the nature of the family, marriage, divorce, the role of women etc. differed from pagan societies.  These unique institutions and structures gave Israel its own family identity. Whereas in India, family is the basic unit of a society.  India has a unique family structure, bounded with caste and religion.  Each caste and religion has their own nature of institutions such as the nature of family, marriage, divorce, the role of women etc. differ from religion to religion and caste to caste.      

     Various Biblical passages depict that the family was an important component of the Israelite society, which has some unique family identity of the Israelite nation, solidarity to family and tribal organizations, together with family customs were of vital importance. Indian society also has a unique caste identity, with varied culture and tradition.  But, living with solidarity, communal harmony, united under the banner of Indians is the vital importance.

     The institutions of marriage was monogamous marriage with a polygamous nature.  The men had one lawful wife, but also several concubines.  The marriage was sanctioned by the payment of the mohar.  Choosing a bride was a very special occasion.  The link in the family bloodline was of vital importance.  Brides were the continuation of the family blood genealogy and also wealth circulated within the family.  Indian constitution allowed monogamy, which means one man  one wife as stated in the Bible, not allowed to live with concubines, which is the special feature of Indian society. If any man living with other woman without the permission of the first wife is considered as offence and adultery and all other practices alike Israelite society.

     With the institution of marriage, there was also the institution of divorce.  This right was granted to the man.  He had the right to discontinue his marriage.  However, there were certain restrictions.  The issuing of a ‘get’ (a certificate of divorce), guaranteed the woman her freedom to remarry.  In India, man and woman had the right to discontinue his or her marriage for a valued reason. After getting legal separation, both had the right to remarry.

     The women in the Israelite society also had a unique identity in comparison to the surrounding countries.  However, these family structures were soon to be challenged.  When the Israelites returned from exile in Babylon, several mixed marriages were contracted, i.e. marriages to foreign women.  The contracting of mixed marriages brought influences of mixed cultures, mixed religions, mixed morality, mixed family structure etc.  It also began to fragment the original unique family identity created within the Israelite society. In India the converted Christians mixed with other community or religious people, several mixed marriages were contracted, which began to fragment the original unique family identity.

      This study may conclude that religion played a vital role in reconstructing society and enhance the independence of a women based on religious thoughts, amendment required in code of law according to the requirement of changes in the society,  Williamson stated that ‘the treatment described in Ezra of how he tackled the problem of mixed marriages is among the least attractive parts of Ezra and Nehemiah, if not the whole of Old Testament’.   Similarly Clines was appalled by the personal misery brought into so many families by the compulsory divorce of foreign wives and outraged at Ezra’s insistence on racial purity, which is uncongenial to modern liberal thoughts. Mixed marriages, divorce are unavoidable, accept the reality and act positively by inculcating the moral values based on religion, which help to maintain gender equality and develop peaceful society.

GREEN CHEMISTRY: PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS

Green Chemistry is nothing but environment friendly chemistry.  It is defined as the design of chemical products and processes that reduce or eliminate the use and          generation of hazardous substances.  The ultimate aim of green chemistry or environment friendly chemistry is to prevent pollution at the source. The first principle of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment held at Stockholm in 1972, stated that,  “Man has a fundamental  right to liberty, equality and satisfactory living condition in an environment whose quality permits him to live in dignity and well being.  He has a solemn duty to protect and improve the environment for present and future generations”. 

It is a fact that the earth does not belong to man; rather man belongs to the earth.  Whatever befalls the earth befalls the sons of the earth.  Man did not weave the web of life; he is merely a strand in it.  Whatever he does to the web, he does it to himself.  The basic human right of ordinary human beings is the right to live in a clean environment and to be protected from the environment degradation created by others.  Hence, there is a need to reexamine the methods of assessing development benefits and public attitude to the environment.

GREEN CHEMISTRY: MEANING

Green Chemistry deals with various chemical phenomena taking place in the environment.  It can be defined as the physical surroundings and conditions which affect the lives of the people, plants and animals.  Environment is composed of lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere.  So, it is necessary to maintain a fine balance between the above mentioned three components.  When this balance is disturbed if the abundance of a naturally occurring substance becomes more than normal or a new substance is introduced due to human activities.

CAUSES FOR ENVIRONMENT POLLUTION    

Human activities and Natural phenomena may be changed by excessive addition of undesirable materials to the physical or biological environment, making it less fit or unfit for life is called pollution.  Increasing population and industrialization required more natural resources, when it diminished, man has been trying to prepare many natural things artificially cause for the rise and growth of industries.  In order to improve the product by using New Technologies, many waste products were also released into the environment which causes pollution.  In such a way pollution has become a “global phenomenon”.  With deforestation, many of the wild animals and birds are also getting extinct.  Water of the rivers and ponds are getting polluted. As some of the pollutants are entering inner layers of the earth cause for the loss of fertility of the soil and less useful for cultivation.  Thus, life on earth is in great danger.  A substance released into the environment due to natural or human activity and which affects adversely the environment is called as pollutant.  

Pollutant may be classified into three different points of view as follows:

1. Accoring to their existence in nature – Quantitative  and Qualitative pollutants. For instance Carbon –di-odixe are the substances, which normally occur in nature but are also added in large quantities by using fires, industries and automobiles by human beings; where as qualitative pollutant do not occur in nature but are added by using insecticides and herbicides by man.

2.According to their natural disposal -  Biodegradable pollutants and Non degradable pollutants.  For instance sewage and heat are disposed off by microbial action and radiation [ by natural means]; where as Non degradable pollutants like D.D.T., arsenic salts of heavy metals, glass , tin containers, radioactive materials, and plastics are not degraded  or degrade very slowly  in nature.  These pollutants accumulate  and may get biologically magnified as they pass through the food chains.

3.  According to the form in which they persist after release into the environment-Primary and Secondary Pollutants.  For instance Plastic persist in the form in which they are added to the environment; whereas Nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons from motor vehicles are react in the presence of sunlight to form two secondary pollutants viz. peroxyacyl nitrate and ozone, which is more toxic than the primary pollutants.  This type of increasing toxicity by reaction among the pollutants is called synergism.

Atmospheric pollution

            Atmospheric pollution refers to the release in to the atmosphere, of materials that are harmful to all living and non –living things. The main sources are Fossil fuel burning, furnaces, power houses release Carbon monoxide; Volcanic activity, refineries release Sulphur oxides; Chemical industries release Nitrogen –di – oxides; Aerosol propellants, chemicals used for dry cleaning release CFC [chlorofluorocarbons]; Asbestos and cement industries, Textile mills release dust. 

     Natural activities like Dust storms, Fumes, Fires, Volcanic eruptions, Natural organic and inorganic decays release harmful gases; dust and sulphurous gases.

Effects of Atmospheric pollution on Human Beings

             Gaseous pollutant cause severe damage to respiratory system; Carbon monoxide  reacts with haemoglobin in blood  and reduces its oxygen carrying capacity; Sulphur di oxide affect larynx; Nitrogen oxides  cause pulmonary haemorrahage  in higher concentration; Hydrocarbon cause Lung cancer; Asbestos cause scarring of lungs known as asbestosis; and Lead from automobile exhaust gets accumulated in the body damages bones and so on.  If we want to protect atmosphere, the following methods help us to minimize the atmospheric pollutants:

i.By planting Phaseolus vulgaris, coleus blumeri , which can fix carbon monoxide, and pinus, juniperus can metabolise nitrogen oxides, which help us to depollute the air and minimizing the use of automobiles, which will not only conserve oil and prove economically.

ii.By law, all motor vehicles should use low-surphur or sulphur-free and lead- free fuel and exhaust gases should be cleaned by using catalyst to reduce Sulphur Oxide release into the air.

iii.All factories should use tall chimneys and industrial smoke should be filtered before releasing into the air.

iv.Poisonous gases should be removed by passing the fumes through water tower scrubber or spray collector.

v.Mining area should be afforestated.

vi.Conventional fuels should be replaced by electricity or natural gas, because it do not emit Sulphur oxide.

vii.Modern smokeless chullahs (induction stove) should be used for cooking, as it avoids wastage and encourage the people to use solar equipments to avoid pollution.

viii.Avoid Nuclear explosions and wars.

HYDROSPHERE  POLLUTION

             Foreign substances like organic, inorganic, biological or radiological added to water and change Hydrosphere physical property and make it less fit or unfit for use.  Water pollution cause of soil particles enter water by its erosion, minerals dissolve in water, animal wastes dead fallen leaves fall into water sources and decaying of organic matter also pollute hydrosphere.  When it gets polluted the colour of the water changed and increase in the salinity, bad odour starts emanating from water bodies, uncontrolled growth of weeds in water and decrease in the growth of fish.

Effects of Hydrosphere Pollution on Human beings

             Inorganic Pollutants like salts, trace elements like copper, zinc, arsenic etc., metals coming out from chromium plating industry, leads to diseases like cholera, jaundice, typhoid and diarrhea; scarcity of drinking water,  and affect aquatic life.  Metals and complex compounds disturb the water system.  Algae cannot grow properly and decrease photosynthesis and increase air pollution directly.  Cyanides, hydrogen sulphides, carbon di oxide, nitrogen di oxide and sulphites change the acidity or  alkalinity of water and becomes toxic to aquatic animals and plants.  Algae nutrients like carbon di oxide, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, nitrates, phosphates, sulphates  and micro nutrients like boron, chlorine, copper, iron, manganese, vanadium, zinc etc., compounds  causes excess growth of the algae and subsequently the ponds get dried up or eutrophication of the pond.

The following measures can minimize hydrosphere pollution

i.The common usage water bodies should not be used for supplying drinking water and separate water bodies should be reserved for cattle and other animals.

ii.Domestic and industrial waste should be suitably “Treated” before releasing into water, which can reduce the harmful effect of the wastes. Periodical checkup is required to enforce the law effectively.

iii.Over use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides should be avoided and  substitute by bio fertilizers.

iv.Hot water should be cooled and release from the factories, and solid water should be recycled where ever possible.

 LITHOSPHERE [Land] POLLUTION

Chemicals, pesticide, Fertilizers, organic manure, Radioactive wastes and discarded materials  adversely affect the physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil and reduce its productivity is called Lithosphere pollution or soil pollution.

Effects of lithosphere pollution on Human Beings

The Chemicals and pesticides may kill essential soil organisms which contribute to the structure and fertility of soil and also make the soil toxic for plant growth.  Many pesticides or their degradation products are absorbed by plants and may reach animals and humans via food chains, and prove harmful. Excreta of animals and human beings may contain pathogens that contaminate the soil and vegetable crops and affect the health of man and domestic animals. Radio active dust may find its way from the soil into crops, livestock and humans via food chains.

The following steps help us to reduce the pollution in lithosphere

i.Control of soil and landscape pollution mainly involves the disposal of solid wastes.  Burning of solid wastes pollutes atmosphere besides leaving a large amount of residue for further disposal.

ii.Pyrolysis [burning without oxygen] is very costly but consumes energy in large amount.

iii.Recycling of wastes is practicable, beneficial, consumable, reduces the amount of residue and conserves the natural resources.  For instance, recycling of paper is costly but recovery of one ton of paper can save 17 trees.

iv.Jute waste is changed into hardboard.

v.Cattle dung used in gobar gas plants, which can substitute electricity, fuel, and enriched dung manure.  In villages bio – gas can be produced easily.  So, it should be encouraged to  use renewable resources.

vi.Domestic wastes can be composting , which not only reduces environmental pollution but also provides humans to replenish depleted soil resources.

vii.‘Treatment’ of sewage and industrial wastes can be reused for gardening.

REMEDIAL MEASURES TO REDUCE ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION       The goals of Government should be to change both local bodies’ and public behaviour; to provide continuous incentives and rewards for improvement; and to move steadily from pollution control to pollution prevention. Agencies which are responsible for pollution control can issue leaflets to create awareness in the minds of people to preserve nature.  In addition they can also levy environmental cess  that can be passed on to local bodies / governmental agencies to meet the expenses for preserving the nature.

   

             The general principles on environmental conservation enunciated by the  Government Charter are as follows:

1.Nature shall be respected and its essential processes shall not be impaired.

2.The genetic viability on the earth shall not be compromised; the population   levels of all life forms, wild and domesticated, must be at least sufficient for their survival, and to this end necessary habitats shall be safeguarded.

3.All areas of the earth, both land and seas, shall be subject to these principles of conservation; special protection shall be given to unique areas, to representative samples of all the different types of ecosystems and to the habitats of rare or endangered species.

4.Eco-systems and organisms, as well as the land, marine and atmospheric resources that are utilized by man, shall be managed to achieve and maintain optimum sustainable productivity, but not in such a way as to endanger the integrity of those other eco-systems or species with which they coexist.

5.Nature shall be secured against degradation.

CONCLUSION

Every one is aware about the types of pollution and preventive measures well.  But many of them unwilling to adopt and practice it.  Especially, the highly educated throw the garbage without segregating it into Biodegradable and Non degradable waste; over usage of vehicles without maintenance, using car as a prestigious issue and never encourage their wards to walk, wealth cause for adopting use and through system  and so on led to the environmental pollution. For instance, in Chennai, Nolambur area, recently the government has laid New National Highways, at present these national highways are being used for dumping many tonnes of garbage every day. All educated crossed by, but no one is taking steps to stop dumping.  Two months back all residents send telegram and e-mail to the Collector to take action against it.  At once they clear up.  But, still the area is suffering from worst environmental degradation.  Permanent solution is required to remove garbage from the residential area all over Chennai. Moreover, insist every domestic waste should be segregated by the individual family and collected by the government and  recycle the waste. Once again the Government can reintroduce “Downward Filtration Theory” and educate the highly educated ‘illiterate environmentalist’.  By observing strict rules and punishment like Singapore may change the mentality of the people to adopt environmental conservation. However, the environmental pollution cannot be eliminated completely because they are essential for the maintenance of present day living standards.  But Green chemistry is reduce or eliminate the use and generation of hazardous substances.  The ultimate aim of green chemistry or environment friendly chemistry is to prevent pollution at the source.

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